GV

GeezerVison

The World Wide Web, restored to 800 pixels of glory.

Home|About|Gaming cabinet|Archives|How it works|Starter sites

On this site

  • index
  • modules
  • next
  • Python
  • 3.4.10 Documentation
  • What’s New In Python 3.4

This view

  • Original page
  • New address

GeezerVison is showing docs.python.org (truncated) — Python Documentation contents — Python 3.4.10 documentation

This document is for an old version of Python that is no longer supported. You should upgrade, and read the Python documentation for the current stable release.

Navigation

  • index
  • modules |
  • next |
  • Python »
  • 3.4.10 Documentation »

Python Documentation contents¶

  • What’s New in Python
    • What’s New In Python 3.4
      • Summary – Release Highlights
      • New Features
        • PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations
          • Bootstrapping pip By Default
          • Documentation Changes
        • PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable
        • Improvements to Codec Handling
        • PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System
        • Other Language Changes
      • New Modules
        • asyncio
        • ensurepip
        • enum
        • pathlib
        • selectors
        • statistics
        • tracemalloc
      • Improved Modules
        • abc
        • aifc
        • argparse
        • audioop
        • base64
        • collections
        • colorsys
        • contextlib
        • dbm
        • dis
        • doctest
        • email
        • filecmp
        • functools
        • gc
        • glob
        • hashlib
        • hmac
        • html
        • http
        • idlelib and IDLE
        • importlib
        • inspect
        • ipaddress
        • logging
        • marshal
        • mmap
        • multiprocessing
        • operator
        • os
        • pdb
        • pickle
        • plistlib
        • poplib
        • pprint
        • pty
        • pydoc
        • re
        • resource
        • select
        • shelve
        • shutil
        • smtpd
        • smtplib
        • socket
        • sqlite3
        • ssl
        • stat
        • struct
        • subprocess
        • sunau
        • sys
        • tarfile
        • textwrap
        • threading
        • traceback
        • types
        • urllib
        • unittest
        • venv
        • wave
        • weakref
        • xml.etree
        • zipfile
      • CPython Implementation Changes
        • PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators
        • PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization
        • PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm
        • PEP 436: Argument Clinic
        • Other Build and C API Changes
        • Other Improvements
        • Significant Optimizations
      • Deprecated
        • Deprecations in the Python API
        • Deprecated Features
      • Removed
        • Operating Systems No Longer Supported
        • API and Feature Removals
        • Code Cleanups
      • Porting to Python 3.4
        • Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior
        • Changes in the Python API
        • Changes in the C API
      • Changed in 3.4.3
        • PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
    • What’s New In Python 3.3
      • Summary – Release highlights
      • PEP 405: Virtual Environments
      • PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
      • PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
        • Features
        • API changes
      • PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
        • Functionality
        • Performance and resource usage
      • PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
      • PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
      • PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
      • PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
      • PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
      • PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
      • PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
      • PEP 362: Function Signature Object
      • PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation
        • SimpleNamespace
      • Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
        • New APIs
        • Visible Changes
      • Other Language Changes
      • A Finer-Grained Import Lock
      • Builtin functions and types
      • New Modules
        • faulthandler
        • ipaddress
        • lzma
      • Improved Modules
        • abc
        • array
        • base64
        • binascii
        • bz2
        • codecs
        • collections
        • contextlib
        • crypt
        • curses
        • datetime
        • decimal
          • Features
          • API changes
        • email
          • Policy Framework
          • Provisional Policy with New Header API
          • Other API Changes
        • ftplib
        • functools
        • gc
        • hmac
        • http
        • html
        • imaplib
        • inspect
        • io
        • itertools
        • logging
        • math
        • mmap
        • multiprocessing
        • nntplib
        • os
        • pdb
        • pickle
        • pydoc
        • re
        • sched
        • select
        • shlex
        • shutil
        • signal
        • smtpd
        • smtplib
        • socket
        • socketserver
        • sqlite3
        • ssl
        • stat
        • struct
        • subprocess
        • sys
        • tarfile
        • tempfile
        • textwrap
        • threading
        • time
        • types
        • unittest
        • urllib
        • webbrowser
        • xml.etree.ElementTree
        • zlib
      • Optimizations
      • Build and C API Changes
      • Deprecated
        • Unsupported Operating Systems
        • Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
        • Deprecated functions and types of the C API
        • Deprecated features
      • Porting to Python 3.3
        • Porting Python code
        • Porting C code
        • Building C extensions
        • Command Line Switch Changes
    • What’s New In Python 3.2
      • PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
      • PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
      • PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
      • PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module
      • PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
      • PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
      • PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
      • Other Language Changes
      • New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
        • email
        • elementtree
        • functools
        • itertools
        • collections
        • threading
        • datetime and time
        • math
        • abc
        • io
        • reprlib
        • logging
        • csv
        • contextlib
        • decimal and fractions
        • ftp
        • popen
        • select
        • gzip and zipfile
        • tarfile
        • hashlib
        • ast
        • os
        • shutil
        • sqlite3
        • html
        • socket
        • ssl
        • nntp
        • certificates
        • imaplib
        • http.client
        • unittest
        • random
        • poplib
        • asyncore
        • tempfile
        • inspect
        • pydoc
        • dis
        • dbm
        • ctypes
        • site
        • sysconfig
        • pdb
        • configparser
        • urllib.parse
        • mailbox
        • turtledemo
      • Multi-threading
      • Optimizations
      • Unicode
      • Codecs
      • Documentation
      • IDLE
      • Code Repository
      • Build and C API Changes
      • Porting to Python 3.2
    • What’s New In Python 3.1
      • PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries
      • PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
      • Other Language Changes
      • New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
      • Optimizations
      • IDLE
      • Build and C API Changes
      • Porting to Python 3.1
    • What’s New In Python 3.0
      • Common Stumbling Blocks
        • Print Is A Function
        • Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists
        • Ordering Comparisons
        • Integers
        • Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit
      • Overview Of Syntax Changes
        • New Syntax
        • Changed Syntax
        • Removed Syntax
      • Changes Already Present In Python 2.6
      • Library Changes
      • PEP 3101: A New Approach To String Formatting
      • Changes To Exceptions
      • Miscellaneous Other Changes
        • Operators And Special Methods
        • Builtins
      • Build and C API Changes
      • Performance
      • Porting To Python 3.0
    • What’s New in Python 2.7
      • The Future for Python 2.x
      • Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
      • Python 3.1 Features
      • PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
      • PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
      • PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
      • PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
      • PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
      • PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
      • Other Language Changes
        • Interpreter Changes
        • Optimizations
      • New and Improved Modules
        • New module: importlib
        • New module: sysconfig
        • ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk
        • Updated module: unittest
        • Updated module: ElementTree 1.3
      • Build and C API Changes
        • Capsules
        • Port-Specific Changes: Windows
        • Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
        • Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD
      • Other Changes and Fixes
      • Porting to Python 2.7
      • New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
        • PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches
        • PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.6
      • Python 3.0
      • Changes to the Development Process
        • New Issue Tracker: Roundup
        • New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx
      • PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
        • Writing Context Managers
        • The contextlib module
      • PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
      • PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory
      • PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package
      • PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
      • PEP 3105: print As a Function
      • PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
      • PEP 3112: Byte Literals
      • PEP 3116: New I/O Library
      • PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
      • PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
      • PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
      • PEP 3129: Class Decorators
      • PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
        • The fractions Module
      • Other Language Changes
        • Optimizations
        • Interpreter Changes
      • New and Improved Modules
        • The ast module
        • The future_builtins module
        • The json module: JavaScript Object Notation
        • The plistlib module: A Property-List Parser
        • ctypes Enhancements
        • Improved SSL Support
      • Deprecations and Removals
      • Build and C API Changes
        • Port-Specific Changes: Windows
        • Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
        • Port-Specific Changes: IRIX
      • Porting to Python 2.6
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.5
      • PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
      • PEP 309: Partial Function Application
      • PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
      • PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
      • PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
      • PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
      • PEP 342: New Generator Features
      • PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
        • Writing Context Managers
        • The contextlib module
      • PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
      • PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
      • PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method
      • Other Language Changes
        • Interactive Interpreter Changes
        • Optimizations
      • New, Improved, and Removed Modules
        • The ctypes package
        • The ElementTree package
        • The hashlib package
        • The sqlite3 package
        • The wsgiref package
      • Build and C API Changes
        • Port-Specific Changes
      • Porting to Python 2.5
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.4
      • PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
      • PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
      • PEP 289: Generator Expressions
      • PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
      • PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
      • PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
      • PEP 324: New subprocess Module
      • PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
        • Why is Decimal needed?
        • The Decimal type
        • The Context type
      • PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
      • PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
      • Other Language Changes
        • Optimizations
      • New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
        • cookielib
        • doctest
      • Build and C API Changes
        • Port-Specific Changes
      • Porting to Python 2.4
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.3
      • PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
      • PEP 255: Simple Generators
      • PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
      • PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
      • PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
      • PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
      • PEP 279: enumerate()
      • PEP 282: The logging Package
      • PEP 285: A Boolean Type
      • PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
      • PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
      • PEP 302: New Import Hooks
      • PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
      • PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
      • Extended Slices
      • Other Language Changes
        • String Changes
        • Optimizations
      • New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
        • Date/Time Type
        • The optparse Module
      • Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
      • Build and C API Changes
        • Port-Specific Changes
      • Other Changes and Fixes
      • Porting to Python 2.3
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.2
      • Introduction
      • PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
        • Old and New Classes
        • Descriptors
        • Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule
        • Attribute Access
        • Related Links
      • PEP 234: Iterators
      • PEP 255: Simple Generators
      • PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
      • PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
      • Unicode Changes
      • PEP 227: Nested Scopes
      • New and Improved Modules
      • Interpreter Changes and Fixes
      • Other Changes and Fixes
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.1
      • Introduction
      • PEP 227: Nested Scopes
      • PEP 236: __future__ Directives
      • PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
      • PEP 230: Warning Framework
      • PEP 229: New Build System
      • PEP 205: Weak References
      • PEP 232: Function Attributes
      • PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
      • PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
      • PEP 208: New Coercion Model
      • PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
      • New and Improved Modules
      • Other Changes and Fixes
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.0
      • Introduction
      • What About Python 1.6?
      • New Development Process
      • Unicode
      • List Comprehensions
      • Augmented Assignment
      • String Methods
      • Garbage Collection of Cycles
      • Other Core Changes
        • Minor Language Changes
        • Changes to Built-in Functions
      • Porting to 2.0
      • Extending/Embedding Changes
      • Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
      • XML Modules
        • SAX2 Support
        • DOM Support
        • Relationship to PyXML
      • Module changes
      • New modules
      • IDLE Improvements
      • Deleted and Deprecated Modules
      • Acknowledgements
    • Changelog
      • Python 3.4.10 final
        • Security
        • Library
      • Python 3.4.10 release candidate 1
        • Security
        • Library
      • Python 3.4.9 final
      • Python 3.4.9 release candidate 1
        • Security
      • Python 3.4.8 final
      • Python 3.4.8 release candidate 1
        • Security
        • Library
        • Build
      • Python 3.4.7 final
        • Library
      • Python 3.4.7 release candidate 1
        • Security
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Documentation
      • Python 3.4.6 final
      • Python 3.4.6 release candidate 1
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Build
        • Tests
      • Python 3.4.5 final
        • Tests
      • Python 3.4.5 release candidate 1
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Tests
      • Python 3.4.4 final
        • Windows
      • Python 3.4.4 release candidate 1
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • IDLE
        • Tests
        • Build
        • C API
        • Documentation
        • Tools/Demos
        • Windows
      • Python 3.4.3 final
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • IDLE
        • Tests
        • Build
        • C API
        • Documentation
        • Tools/Demos
        • Windows
      • Python 3.4.2 final
        • Library
      • Python 3.4.2 release candidate 1
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Build
        • IDLE
        • Tests
        • Documentation
        • Windows
        • Tools/Demos
      • Python 3.4.1 final
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Tests
        • IDLE
      • Python 3.4.1 release candidate 1
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • IDLE
        • Build
        • C API
        • Documentation
        • Tests
        • Tools/Demos
      • Python 3.4.0 final
        • Library
        • Documentation
      • Python 3.4.0 release candidate 3
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Build
      • Python 3.4.0 release candidate 2
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Build
      • Python 3.4.0 release candidate 1
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • IDLE
        • Tests
        • Tools/Demos
        • Build
        • C API
        • Documentation
      • Python 3.4.0 beta 3
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • IDLE
        • Tests
        • Tools/Demos
        • Build
      • Python 3.4.0 beta 2
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • IDLE
        • Tests
        • Build
        • Documentation
        • Tools/Demos
      • Python 3.4.0 beta 1
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Tests
        • Documentation
        • Build
        • Tools/Demos
      • Python 3.4.0 alpha 4
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • C API
        • Tests
        • Documentation
        • Build
      • Python 3.4.0 alpha 3
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Tests
        • IDLE
        • Documentation
        • Build
        • Tools/Demos
      • Python 3.4.0 alpha 2
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Tests
        • IDLE
        • Documentation
        • Build
        • Tools/Demos
      • Python 3.4.0 alpha 1
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • IDLE
        • Tests
        • Build
        • C API
        • Documentation
        • Tools/Demos
        • Windows
      • Python 3.3.0 final
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
      • Python 3.3.0 release candidate 3
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
      • Python 3.3.0 release candidate 2
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Build
        • Documentation
      • Python 3.3.0 release candidate 1
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • IDLE
        • Documentation
        • Tests
        • Build
      • Python 3.3.0 beta 2
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • C API
        • Library
        • IDLE
        • Tools/Demos
        • Documentation
        • Tests
        • Build
      • Python 3.3.0 beta 1
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • C API
        • Library
        • IDLE
        • Documentation
        • Tests
        • Build
      • Python 3.3.0 alpha 4
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • IDLE
        • Tools/Demos
        • Build
        • C API
        • Documentation
      • Python 3.3.0 alpha 3
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Build
        • Tests
        • IDLE
        • Tools/Demos
        • C API
      • Python 3.3.0 alpha 2
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Build
        • Documentation
        • Library
        • Tests
      • Python 3.3.0 alpha 1
        • Core and Builtins
        • Library
        • Build
        • IDLE
        • Tools/Demos
        • Library
        • Tests
        • C API
        • Documentation
  • The Python Tutorial
    • 1. Whetting Your Appetite
    • 2. Using the Python Interpreter
      • 2.1. Invoking the Interpreter
        • 2.1.1. Argument Passing
        • 2.1.2. Interactive Mode
      • 2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment
        • 2.2.1. Source Code Encoding
    • 3. An Informal Introduction to Python
      • 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator
        • 3.1.1. Numbers
        • 3.1.2. Strings
        • 3.1.3. Lists
      • 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming
    • 4. More Control Flow Tools
      • 4.1. if Statements
      • 4.2. for Statements
      • 4.3. The range() Function
      • 4.4. break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops
      • 4.5. pass Statements
      • 4.6. Defining Functions
      • 4.7. More on Defining Functions
        • 4.7.1. Default Argument Values
        • 4.7.2. Keyword Arguments
        • 4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists
        • 4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists
        • 4.7.5. Lambda Expressions
        • 4.7.6. Documentation Strings
        • 4.7.7. Function Annotations
      • 4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style
    • 5. Data Structures
      • 5.1. More on Lists
        • 5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks
        • 5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues
        • 5.1.3. List Comprehensions
        • 5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions
      • 5.2. The del statement
      • 5.3. Tuples and Sequences
      • 5.4. Sets
      • 5.5. Dictionaries
      • 5.6. Looping Techniques
      • 5.7. More on Conditions
      • 5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types
    • 6. Modules
      • 6.1. More on Modules
        • 6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts
        • 6.1.2. The Module Search Path
        • 6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files
      • 6.2. Standard Modules
      • 6.3. The dir() Function
      • 6.4. Packages
        • 6.4.1. Importing * From a Package
        • 6.4.2. Intra-package References
        • 6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories
    • 7. Input and Output
      • 7.1. Fancier Output Formatting
        • 7.1.1. Old string formatting
      • 7.2. Reading and Writing Files
        • 7.2.1. Methods of File Objects
        • 7.2.2. Saving structured data with json
    • 8. Errors and Exceptions
      • 8.1. Syntax Errors
      • 8.2. Exceptions
      • 8.3. Handling Exceptions
      • 8.4. Raising Exceptions
      • 8.5. User-defined Exceptions
      • 8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions
      • 8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions
    • 9. Classes
      • 9.1. A Word About Names and Objects
      • 9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces
        • 9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example
      • 9.3. A First Look at Classes
        • 9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax
        • 9.3.2. Class Objects
        • 9.3.3. Instance Objects
        • 9.3.4. Method Objects
        • 9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables
      • 9.4. Random Remarks
      • 9.5. Inheritance
        • 9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance
      • 9.6. Private Variables
      • 9.7. Odds and Ends
      • 9.8. Exceptions Are Classes Too
      • 9.9. Iterators
      • 9.10. Generators
      • 9.11. Generator Expressions
    • 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library
      • 10.1. Operating System Interface
      • 10.2. File Wildcards
      • 10.3. Command Line Arguments
      • 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination
      • 10.5. String Pattern Matching
      • 10.6. Mathematics
      • 10.7. Internet Access
      • 10.8. Dates and Times
      • 10.9. Data Compression
      • 10.10. Performance Measurement
      • 10.11. Quality Control
      • 10.12. Batteries Included
    • 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library – Part II
      • 11.1. Output Formatting
      • 11.2. Templating
      • 11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts
      • 11.4. Multi-threading
      • 11.5. Logging
      • 11.6. Weak References
      • 11.7. Tools for Working with Lists
      • 11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic
    • 12. Virtual Environments and Packages
      • 12.1. Introduction
      • 12.2. Creating Virtual Environments
      • 12.3. Managing Packages with pip
    • 13. What Now?
    • 14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution
      • 14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing
      • 14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter
    • 15. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
      • 15.1. Representation Error
    • 16. Appendix
      • 16.1. Interactive Mode
        • 16.1.1. Error Handling
        • 16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts
        • 16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File
        • 16.1.4. The Customization Modules
  • Python Setup and Usage
    • 1. Command line and environment
      • 1.1. Command line
        • 1.1.1. Interface options
        • 1.1.2. Generic options
        • 1.1.3. Miscellaneous options
        • 1.1.4. Options you shouldn’t use
      • 1.2. Environment variables
        • 1.2.1. Debug-mode variables
    • 2. Using Python on Unix platforms
      • 2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python
        • 2.1.1. On Linux
        • 2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD
        • 2.1.3. On OpenSolaris
      • 2.2. Building Python
      • 2.3. Python-related paths and files
      • 2.4. Miscellaneous
      • 2.5. Editors
    • 3. Using Python on Windows
      • 3.1. Installing Python
      • 3.2. Alternative bundles
      • 3.3. Configuring Python
        • 3.3.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables
        • 3.3.2. Finding the Python executable
        • 3.3.3. Finding modules
        • 3.3.4. Executing scripts
        • 3.3.5. Executing scripts without the Python launcher
      • 3.4. Python Launcher for Windows
        • 3.4.1. Getting started
          • 3.4.1.1. From the command-line
          • 3.4.1.2. From a script
          • 3.4.1.3. From file associations
        • 3.4.2. Shebang Lines
        • 3.4.3. Arguments in shebang lines
        • 3.4.4. Customization
          • 3.4.4.1. Customization via INI files
          • 3.4.4.2. Customizing default Python versions
        • 3.4.5. Diagnostics
      • 3.5. Additional modules
        • 3.5.1. PyWin32
        • 3.5.2. cx_Freeze
        • 3.5.3. WConio
      • 3.6. Compiling Python on Windows
      • 3.7. Other resources
    • 4. Using Python on a Macintosh
      • 4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython
        • 4.1.1. How to run a Python script
        • 4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI
        • 4.1.3. Configuration
      • 4.2. The IDE
      • 4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages
      • 4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac
      • 4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac
      • 4.6. Other Resources
    • 5. Additional Tools and Scripts
      • 5.1. pyvenv - Creating virtual environments
  • The Python Language Reference
    • 1. Introduction
      • 1.1. Alternate Implementations
      • 1.2. Notation
    • 2. Lexical analysis
      • 2.1. Line structure
        • 2.1.1. Logical lines
        • 2.1.2. Physical lines
        • 2.1.3. Comments
        • 2.1.4. Encoding declarations
        • 2.1.5. Explicit line joining
        • 2.1.6. Implicit line joining
        • 2.1.7. Blank lines
        • 2.1.8. Indentation
        • 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens
      • 2.2. Other tokens
      • 2.3. Identifiers and keywords
        • 2.3.1. Keywords
        • 2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers
      • 2.4. Literals
        • 2.4.1. String and Bytes literals
        • 2.4.2. String literal concatenation
        • 2.4.3. Numeric literals
        • 2.4.4. Integer literals
        • 2.4.5. Floating point literals
        • 2.4.6. Imaginary literals
      • 2.5. Operators
      • 2.6. Delimiters
    • 3. Data model
      • 3.1. Objects, values and types
      • 3.2. The standard type hierarchy
      • 3.3. Special method names
        • 3.3.1. Basic customization
        • 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access
          • 3.3.2.1. Implementing Descriptors
          • 3.3.2.2. Invoking Descriptors
          • 3.3.2.3. __slots__
            • 3.3.2.3.1. Notes on using __slots__
        • 3.3.3. Customizing class creation
          • 3.3.3.1. Determining the appropriate metaclass
          • 3.3.3.2. Preparing the class namespace
          • 3.3.3.3. Executing the class body
          • 3.3.3.4. Creating the class object
          • 3.3.3.5. Metaclass example
        • 3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks
        • 3.3.5. Emulating callable objects
        • 3.3.6. Emulating container types
        • 3.3.7. Emulating numeric types
        • 3.3.8. With Statement Context Managers
        • 3.3.9. Special method lookup
    • 4. Execution model
      • 4.1. Structure of a program
      • 4.2. Naming and binding
        • 4.2.1. Binding of names
        • 4.2.2. Resolution of names
        • 4.2.3. Builtins and restricted execution
        • 4.2.4. Interaction with dynamic features
      • 4.3. Exceptions
    • 5. The import system
      • 5.1. importlib
      • 5.2. Packages
        • 5.2.1. Regular packages
        • 5.2.2. Namespace packages
      • 5.3. Searching
        • 5.3.1. The module cache
        • 5.3.2. Finders and loaders
        • 5.3.3. Import hooks
        • 5.3.4. The meta path
      • 5.4. Loading
        • 5.4.1. Loaders
        • 5.4.2. Submodules
        • 5.4.3. Module spec
        • 5.4.4. Import-related module attributes
        • 5.4.5. module.__path__
        • 5.4.6. Module reprs
      • 5.5. The Path Based Finder
        • 5.5.1. Path entry finders
        • 5.5.2. Path entry finder protocol
      • 5.6. Replacing the standard import system
      • 5.7. Special considerations for __main__
        • 5.7.1. __main__.__spec__
      • 5.8. Open issues
      • 5.9. References
    • 6. Expressions
      • 6.1. Arithmetic conversions
      • 6.2. Atoms
        • 6.2.1. Identifiers (Names)
        • 6.2.2. Literals
        • 6.2.3. Parenthesized forms
        • 6.2.4. Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries
        • 6.2.5. List displays
        • 6.2.6. Set displays
        • 6.2.7. Dictionary displays
        • 6.2.8. Generator expressions
        • 6.2.9. Yield expressions
          • 6.2.9.1. Generator-iterator methods
          • 6.2.9.2. Examples
      • 6.3. Primaries
        • 6.3.1. Attribute references
        • 6.3.2. Subscriptions
        • 6.3.3. Slicings
        • 6.3.4. Calls
      • 6.4. The power operator
      • 6.5. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
      • 6.6. Binary arithmetic operations
      • 6.7. Shifting operations
      • 6.8. Binary bitwise operations
      • 6.9. Comparisons
        • 6.9.1. Value comparisons
        • 6.9.2. Membership test operations
        • 6.9.3. Identity comparisons
      • 6.10. Boolean operations
      • 6.11. Conditional expressions
      • 6.12. Lambdas
      • 6.13. Expression lists
      • 6.14. Evaluation order
      • 6.15. Operator precedence
    • 7. Simple statements
      • 7.1. Expression statements
      • 7.2. Assignment statements
        • 7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements
      • 7.3. The assert statement
      • 7.4. The pass statement
      • 7.5. The del statement
      • 7.6. The return statement
      • 7.7. The yield statement
      • 7.8. The raise statement
      • 7.9. The break statement
      • 7.10. The continue statement
      • 7.11. The import statement
        • 7.11.1. Future statements
      • 7.12. The global statement
      • 7.13. The nonlocal statement
    • 8. Compound statements
      • 8.1. The if statement
      • 8.2. The while statement
      • 8.3. The for statement
      • 8.4. The try statement
      • 8.5. The with statement
      • 8.6. Function definitions
      • 8.7. Class definitions
    • 9. Top-level components
      • 9.1. Complete Python programs
      • 9.2. File input
      • 9.3. Interactive input
      • 9.4. Expression input
    • 10. Full Grammar specification
  • The Python Standard Library
    • 1. Introduction
    • 2. Built-in Functions
    • 3. Built-in Constants
      • 3.1. Constants added by the site module
    • 4. Built-in Types
      • 4.1. Truth Value Testing
      • 4.2. Boolean Operations — and, or, not
      • 4.3. Comparisons
      • 4.4. Numeric Types — int, float, complex
        • 4.4.1. Bitwise Operations on Integer Types
        • 4.4.2. Additional Methods on Integer Types
        • 4.4.3. Additional Methods on Float
        • 4.4.4. Hashing of numeric types
      • 4.5. Iterator Types
        • 4.5.1. Generator Types
      • 4.6. Sequence Types — list, tuple, range
        • 4.6.1. Common Sequence Operations
        • 4.6.2. Immutable Sequence Types
        • 4.6.3. Mutable Sequence Types
        • 4.6.4. Lists
        • 4.6.5. Tuples
        • 4.6.6. Ranges
      • 4.7. Text Sequence Type — str
        • 4.7.1. String Methods
        • 4.7.2. printf-style String Formatting
      • 4.8. Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview
        • 4.8.1. Bytes
        • 4.8.2. Bytearray Objects
        • 4.8.3. Bytes and Bytearray Operations
        • 4.8.4. Memory Views
      • 4.9. Set Types — set, frozenset
      • 4.10. Mapping Types — dict
        • 4.10.1. Dictionary view objects
      • 4.11. Context Manager Types
      • 4.12. Other Built-in Types
        • 4.12.1. Modules
        • 4.12.2. Classes and Class Instances
        • 4.12.3. Functions
        • 4.12.4. Methods
        • 4.12.5. Code Objects
        • 4.12.6. Type Objects
        • 4.12.7. The Null Object
        • 4.12.8. The Ellipsis Object
        • 4.12.9. The NotImplemented Object
        • 4.12.10. Boolean Values
        • 4.12.11. Internal Objects
      • 4.13. Special Attributes
    • 5. Built-in Exceptions
      • 5.1. Base classes
      • 5.2. Concrete exceptions
        • 5.2.1. OS exceptions
      • 5.3. Warnings
      • 5.4. Exception hierarchy
    • 6. Text Processing Services
      • 6.1. string — Common string operations
        • 6.1.1. String constants
        • 6.1.2. String Formatting
        • 6.1.3. Format String Syntax
          • 6.1.3.1. Format Specification Mini-Language
          • 6.1.3.2. Format examples
        • 6.1.4. Template strings
        • 6.1.5. Helper functions
      • 6.2. re — Regular expression operations
        • 6.2.1. Regular Expression Syntax
        • 6.2.2. Module Contents
        • 6.2.3. Regular Expression Objects
        • 6.2.4. Match Objects
        • 6.2.5. Regular Expression Examples
          • 6.2.5.1. Checking for a Pair
          • 6.2.5.2. Simulating scanf()
          • 6.2.5.3. search() vs. match()
          • 6.2.5.4. Making a Phonebook
          • 6.2.5.5. Text Munging
          • 6.2.5.6. Finding all Adverbs
          • 6.2.5.7. Finding all Adverbs and their Positions
          • 6.2.5.8. Raw String Notation
          • 6.2.5.9. Writing a Tokenizer
      • 6.3. difflib — Helpers for computing deltas
        • 6.3.1. SequenceMatcher Objects
        • 6.3.2. SequenceMatcher Examples
        • 6.3.3. Differ Objects
        • 6.3.4. Differ Example
        • 6.3.5. A command-line interface to difflib
      • 6.4. textwrap — Text wrapping and filling
      • 6.5. unicodedata — Unicode Database
      • 6.6. stringprep — Internet String Preparation
      • 6.7. readline — GNU readline interface
        • 6.7.1. Example
      • 6.8. rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline
        • 6.8.1. Completer Objects
    • 7. Binary Data Services
      • 7.1. struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data
        • 7.1.1. Functions and Exceptions
        • 7.1.2. Format Strings
          • 7.1.2.1. Byte Order, Size, and Alignment
          • 7.1.2.2. Format Characters
          • 7.1.2.3. Examples
        • 7.1.3. Classes
      • 7.2. codecs — Codec registry and base classes
        • 7.2.1. Codec Base Classes
          • 7.2.1.1. Error Handlers
          • 7.2.1.2. Stateless Encoding and Decoding
          • 7.2.1.3. Incremental Encoding and Decoding
            • 7.2.1.3.1. IncrementalEncoder Objects
            • 7.2.1.3.2. IncrementalDecoder Objects
          • 7.2.1.4. Stream Encoding and Decoding
            • 7.2.1.4.1. StreamWriter Objects
            • 7.2.1.4.2. StreamReader Objects
            • 7.2.1.4.3. StreamReaderWriter Objects
            • 7.2.1.4.4. StreamRecoder Objects
        • 7.2.2. Encodings and Unicode
        • 7.2.3. Standard Encodings
        • 7.2.4. Python Specific Encodings
          • 7.2.4.1. Text Encodings
          • 7.2.4.2. Binary Transforms
          • 7.2.4.3. Text Transforms
        • 7.2.5. encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
        • 7.2.6. encodings.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage
        • 7.2.7. encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
    • 8. Data Types
      • 8.1. datetime — Basic date and time types
        • 8.1.1. Available Types
        • 8.1.2. timedelta Objects
        • 8.1.3. date Objects
        • 8.1.4. datetime Objects
        • 8.1.5. time Objects
        • 8.1.6. tzinfo Objects
        • 8.1.7. timezone Objects
        • 8.1.8. strftime() and strptime() Behavior
      • 8.2. calendar — General calendar-related functions
      • 8.3. collections — Container datatypes
        • 8.3.1. ChainMap objects
          • 8.3.1.1. ChainMap Examples and Recipes
        • 8.3.2. Counter objects
        • 8.3.3. deque objects
          • 8.3.3.1. deque Recipes
        • 8.3.4. defaultdict objects
          • 8.3.4.1. defaultdict Examples
        • 8.3.5. namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields
        • 8.3.6. OrderedDict objects
          • 8.3.6.1. OrderedDict Examples and Recipes
        • 8.3.7. UserDict objects
        • 8.3.8. UserList objects
        • 8.3.9. UserString objects
      • 8.4. collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers
        • 8.4.1. Collections Abstract Base Classes
      • 8.5. heapq — Heap queue algorithm
        • 8.5.1. Basic Examples
        • 8.5.2. Priority Queue Implementation Notes
        • 8.5.3. Theory
      • 8.6. bisect — Array bisection algorithm
        • 8.6.1. Searching Sorted Lists
        • 8.6.2. Other Examples
      • 8.7. array — Efficient arrays of numeric values
      • 8.8. weakref — Weak references
        • 8.8.1. Weak Reference Objects
        • 8.8.2. Example
        • 8.8.3. Finalizer Objects
        • 8.8.4. Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods
      • 8.9. types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
        • 8.9.1. Dynamic Type Creation
        • 8.9.2. Standard Interpreter Types
        • 8.9.3. Additional Utility Classes and Functions
      • 8.10. copy — Shallow and deep copy operations
      • 8.11. pprint — Data pretty printer
        • 8.11.1. PrettyPrinter Objects
        • 8.11.2. Example
      • 8.12. reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation
        • 8.12.1. Repr Objects
        • 8.12.2. Subclassing Repr Objects
      • 8.13. enum — Support for enumerations
        • 8.13.1. Module Contents
        • 8.13.2. Creating an Enum
        • 8.13.3. Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes
        • 8.13.4. Duplicating enum members and values
        • 8.13.5. Ensuring unique enumeration values
        • 8.13.6. Iteration
        • 8.13.7. Comparisons
        • 8.13.8. Allowed members and attributes of enumerations
        • 8.13.9. Restricted subclassing of enumerations
        • 8.13.10. Pickling
        • 8.13.11. Functional API
        • 8.13.12. Derived Enumerations
          • 8.13.12.1. IntEnum
          • 8.13.12.2. Others
        • 8.13.13. Interesting examples
          • 8.13.13.1. AutoNumber
          • 8.13.13.2. OrderedEnum
          • 8.13.13.3. DuplicateFreeEnum
          • 8.13.13.4. Planet
        • 8.13.14. How are Enums different?
          • 8.13.14.1. Enum Classes
          • 8.13.14.2. Enum Members (aka instances)
          • 8.13.14.3. Finer Points
    • 9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules
      • 9.1. numbers — Numeric abstract base classes
        • 9.1.1. The numeric tower
        • 9.1.2. Notes for type implementors
          • 9.1.2.1. Adding More Numeric ABCs
          • 9.1.2.2. Implementing the arithmetic operations
      • 9.2. math — Mathematical functions
        • 9.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions
        • 9.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions
        • 9.2.3. Trigonometric functions
        • 9.2.4. Angular conversion
        • 9.2.5. Hyperbolic functions
        • 9.2.6. Special functions
        • 9.2.7. Constants
      • 9.3. cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
        • 9.3.1. Conversions to and from polar coordinates
        • 9.3.2. Power and logarithmic functions
        • 9.3.3. Trigonometric functions
        • 9.3.4. Hyperbolic functions
        • 9.3.5. Classification functions
        • 9.3.6. Constants
      • 9.4. decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic
        • 9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial
        • 9.4.2. Decimal objects
          • 9.4.2.1. Logical operands
        • 9.4.3. Context objects
        • 9.4.4. Constants
        • 9.4.5. Rounding modes
        • 9.4.6. Signals
        • 9.4.7. Floating Point Notes
          • 9.4.7.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased precision
          • 9.4.7.2. Special values
        • 9.4.8. Working with threads
        • 9.4.9. Recipes
        • 9.4.10. Decimal FAQ
      • 9.5. fractions — Rational numbers
      • 9.6. random — Generate pseudo-random numbers
        • 9.6.1. Notes on Reproducibility
        • 9.6.2. Examples and Recipes
      • 9.7. statistics — Mathematical statistics functions
        • 9.7.1. Averages and measures of central location
        • 9.7.2. Measures of spread
        • 9.7.3. Function details
        • 9.7.4. Exceptions
    • 10. Functional Programming Modules
      • 10.1. itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
        • 10.1.1. Itertool functions
        • 10.1.2. Itertools Recipes
      • 10.2. functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects
        • 10.2.1. partial Objects
      • 10.3. operator — Standard operators as functions
        • 10.3.1. Mapping Operators to Functions
        • 10.3.2. Inplace Operators
    • 11. File and Directory Access
      • 11.1. pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths
        • 11.1.1. Basic use
        • 11.1.2. Pure paths
          • 11.1.2.1. General properties
          • 11.1.2.2. Operators
          • 11.1.2.3. Accessing individual parts
          • 11.1.2.4. Methods and properties
        • 11.1.3. Concrete paths
          • 11.1.3.1. Methods
      • 11.2. os.path — Common pathname manipulations
      • 11.3. fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
      • 11.4. stat — Interpreting stat() results
      • 11.5. filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons
        • 11.5.1. The dircmp class
      • 11.6. tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories
        • 11.6.1. Examples
      • 11.7. glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion
      • 11.8. fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching
      • 11.9. linecache — Random access to text lines
      • 11.10. shutil — High-level file operations
        • 11.10.1. Directory and files operations
          • 11.10.1.1. copytree example
        • 11.10.2. Archiving operations
          • 11.10.2.1. Archiving example
        • 11.10.3. Querying the size of the output terminal
      • 11.11. macpath — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions
    • 12. Data Persistence
      • 12.1. pickle — Python object serialization
        • 12.1.1. Relationship to other Python modules
          • 12.1.1.1. Comparison with marshal
          • 12.1.1.2. Comparison with json
        • 12.1.2. Data stream format
        • 12.1.3. Module Interface
        • 12.1.4. What can be pickled and unpickled?
        • 12.1.5. Pickling Class Instances
          • 12.1.5.1. Persistence of External Objects
          • 12.1.5.2. Dispatch Tables
          • 12.1.5.3. Handling Stateful Objects
        • 12.1.6. Restricting Globals
        • 12.1.7. Performance
        • 12.1.8. Examples
      • 12.2. copyreg — Register pickle support functions
        • 12.2.1. Example
      • 12.3. shelve — Python object persistence
        • 12.3.1. Restrictions
        • 12.3.2. Example
      • 12.4. marshal — Internal Python object serialization
      • 12.5. dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”
        • 12.5.1. dbm.gnu — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm
        • 12.5.2. dbm.ndbm — Interface based on ndbm
        • 12.5.3. dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation
      • 12.6. sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
        • 12.6.1. Module functions and constants
        • 12.6.2. Connection Objects
        • 12.6.3. Cursor Objects
        • 12.6.4. Row Objects
        • 12.6.5. SQLite and Python types
          • 12.6.5.1. Introduction
          • 12.6.5.2. Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases
            • 12.6.5.2.1. Letting your object adapt itself
            • 12.6.5.2.2. Registering an adapter callable
          • 12.6.5.3. Converting SQLite values to custom Python types
          • 12.6.5.4. Default adapters and converters
        • 12.6.6. Controlling Transactions
        • 12.6.7. Using sqlite3 efficiently
          • 12.6.7.1. Using shortcut methods
          • 12.6.7.2. Accessing columns by name instead of by index
          • 12.6.7.3. Using the connection as a context manager
        • 12.6.8. Common issues
          • 12.6.8.1. Multithreading
    • 13. Data Compression and Archiving
      • 13.1. zlib — Compression compatible with gzip
      • 13.2. gzip — Support for gzip files
        • 13.2.1. Examples of usage
      • 13.3. bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression
        • 13.3.1. (De)compression of files
        • 13.3.2. Incremental (de)compression
        • 13.3.3. One-shot (de)compression
      • 13.4. lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm
        • 13.4.1. Reading and writing compressed files
        • 13.4.2. Compressing and decompressing data in memory
        • 13.4.3. Miscellaneous
        • 13.4.4. Specifying custom filter chains
        • 13.4.5. Examples
      • 13.5. zipfile — Work with ZIP archives
        • 13.5.1. ZipFile Objects
        • 13.5.2. PyZipFile Objects
        • 13.5.3. ZipInfo Objects
      • 13.6. tarfile — Read and write tar archive files
        • 13.6.1. TarFile Objects
        • 13.6.2. TarInfo Objects
        • 13.6.3. Command Line Interface
          • 13.6.3.1. Command line options
        • 13.6.4. Examples
        • 13.6.5. Supported tar formats
        • 13.6.6. Unicode issues
    • 14. File Formats
      • 14.1. csv — CSV File Reading and Writing
        • 14.1.1. Module Contents
        • 14.1.2. Dialects and Formatting Parameters
        • 14.1.3. Reader Objects
        • 14.1.4. Writer Objects
        • 14.1.5. Examples
      • 14.2. configparser — Configuration file parser
        • 14.2.1. Quick Start
        • 14.2.2. Supported Datatypes
        • 14.2.3. Fallback Values
        • 14.2.4. Supported INI File Structure
        • 14.2.5. Interpolation of values
        • 14.2.6. Mapping Protocol Access
        • 14.2.7. Customizing Parser Behaviour
        • 14.2.8. Legacy API Examples
        • 14.2.9. ConfigParser Objects
        • 14.2.10. RawConfigParser Objects
        • 14.2.11. Exceptions
      • 14.3. netrc — netrc file processing
        • 14.3.1. netrc Objects
      • 14.4. xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data
        • 14.4.1. Packer Objects
        • 14.4.2. Unpacker Objects
        • 14.4.3. Exceptions
      • 14.5. plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files
        • 14.5.1. Examples
    • 15. Cryptographic Services
      • 15.1. hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests
        • 15.1.1. Hash algorithms
        • 15.1.2. Key derivation
      • 15.2. hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication
    • 16. Generic Operating System Services
      • 16.1. os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
        • 16.1.1. File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables
        • 16.1.2. Process Parameters
        • 16.1.3. File Object Creation
        • 16.1.4. File Descriptor Operations
          • 16.1.4.1. Querying the size of a terminal
          • 16.1.4.2. Inheritance of File Descriptors
        • 16.1.5. Files and Directories
          • 16.1.5.1. Linux extended attributes
        • 16.1.6. Process Management
        • 16.1.7. Interface to the scheduler
        • 16.1.8. Miscellaneous System Information
        • 16.1.9. Miscellaneous Functions
      • 16.2. io — Core tools for working with streams
        • 16.2.1. Overview
          • 16.2.1.1. Text I/O
          • 16.2.1.2. Binary I/O
          • 16.2.1.3. Raw I/O
        • 16.2.2. High-level Module Interface
          • 16.2.2.1. In-memory streams
        • 16.2.3. Class hierarchy
          • 16.2.3.1. I/O Base Classes
          • 16.2.3.2. Raw File I/O
          • 16.2.3.3. Buffered Streams
          • 16.2.3.4. Text I/O
        • 16.2.4. Performance
          • 16.2.4.1. Binary I/O
          • 16.2.4.2. Text I/O
          • 16.2.4.3. Multi-threading
          • 16.2.4.4. Reentrancy
      • 16.3. time — Time access and conversions
      • 16.4. argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands
        • 16.4.1. Example
          • 16.4.1.1. Creating a parser
          • 16.4.1.2. Adding arguments
          • 16.4.1.3. Parsing arguments
        • 16.4.2. ArgumentParser objects
          • 16.4.2.1. prog
          • 16.4.2.2. usage
          • 16.4.2.3. description
          • 16.4.2.4. epilog
          • 16.4.2.5. parents
          • 16.4.2.6. formatter_class
          • 16.4.2.7. prefix_chars
          • 16.4.2.8. fromfile_prefix_chars
          • 16.4.2.9. argument_default
          • 16.4.2.10. conflict_handler
          • 16.4.2.11. add_help
        • 16.4.3. The add_argument() method
          • 16.4.3.1. name or flags
          • 16.4.3.2. action
          • 16.4.3.3. nargs
          • 16.4.3.4. const
          • 16.4.3.5. default
          • 16.4.3.6. type
          • 16.4.3.7. choices
          • 16.4.3.8. required
          • 16.4.3.9. help
          • 16.4.3.10. metavar
          • 16.4.3.11. dest
          • 16.4.3.12. Action classes
        • 16.4.4. The parse_args() method
          • 16.4.4.1. Option value syntax
          • 16.4.4.2. Invalid arguments
          • 16.4.4.3. Arguments containing -
          • 16.4.4.4. Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)
          • 16.4.4.5. Beyond sys.argv
          • 16.4.4.6. The Namespace object
        • 16.4.5. Other utilities
          • 16.4.5.1. Sub-commands
          • 16.4.5.2. FileType objects
          • 16.4.5.3. Argument groups
          • 16.4.5.4. Mutual exclusion
          • 16.4.5.5. Parser defaults
          • 16.4.5.6. Printing help
          • 16.4.5.7. Partial parsing
          • 16.4.5.8. Customizing file parsing
          • 16.4.5.9. Exiting methods
        • 16.4.6. Upgrading optparse code
      • 16.5. getopt — C-style parser for command line options
      • 16.6. logging — Logging facility for Python
        • 16.6.1. Logger Objects
        • 16.6.2. Logging Levels
        • 16.6.3. Handler Objects
        • 16.6.4. Formatter Objects
        • 16.6.5. Filter Objects
        • 16.6.6. LogRecord Objects
        • 16.6.7. LogRecord attributes
        • 16.6.8. LoggerAdapter Objects
        • 16.6.9. Thread Safety
        • 16.6.10. Module-Level Functions
        • 16.6.11. Module-Level Attributes
        • 16.6.12. Integration with the warnings module
      • 16.7. logging.config — Logging configuration
        • 16.7.1. Configuration functions
        • 16.7.2. Configuration dictionary schema
          • 16.7.2.1. Dictionary Schema Details
          • 16.7.2.2. Incremental Configuration
          • 16.7.2.3. Object connections
          • 16.7.2.4. User-defined objects
          • 16.7.2.5. Access to external objects
          • 16.7.2.6. Access to internal objects
          • 16.7.2.7. Import resolution and custom importers
        • 16.7.3. Configuration file format
      • 16.8. logging.handlers — Logging handlers
        • 16.8.1. StreamHandler
        • 16.8.2. FileHandler
        • 16.8.3. NullHandler
        • 16.8.4. WatchedFileHandler
        • 16.8.5. BaseRotatingHandler
        • 16.8.6. RotatingFileHandler
        • 16.8.7. TimedRotatingFileHandler
        • 16.8.8. SocketHandler
        • 16.8.9. DatagramHandler
        • 16.8.10. SysLogHandler
        • 16.8.11. NTEventLogHandler
        • 16.8.12. SMTPHandler
        • 16.8.13. MemoryHandler
        • 16.8.14. HTTPHandler
        • 16.8.15. QueueHandler
        • 16.8.16. QueueListener
      • 16.9. getpass — Portable password input
      • 16.10. curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays
        • 16.10.1. Functions
        • 16.10.2. Window Objects
        • 16.10.3. Constants
      • 16.11. curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs
        • 16.11.1. Textbox objects
      • 16.12. curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters
      • 16.13. curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses
        • 16.13.1. Functions
        • 16.13.2. Panel Objects
      • 16.14. platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data
        • 16.14.1. Cross Platform
        • 16.14.2. Java Platform
        • 16.14.3. Windows Platform
          • 16.14.3.1. Win95/98 specific
        • 16.14.4. Mac OS Platform
        • 16.14.5. Unix Platforms
      • 16.15. errno — Standard errno system symbols
      • 16.16. ctypes — A foreign function library for Python
        • 16.16.1. ctypes tutorial
          • 16.16.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries
          • 16.16.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls
          • 16.16.1.3. Calling functions
          • 16.16.1.4. Fundamental data types
          • 16.16.1.5. Calling functions, continued
          • 16.16.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types
          • 16.16.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
          • 16.16.1.8. Return types
          • 16.16.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
          • 16.16.1.10. Structures and unions
          • 16.16.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order
          • 16.16.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions
          • 16.16.1.13. Arrays
          • 16.16.1.14. Pointers
          • 16.16.1.15. Type conversions
          • 16.16.1.16. Incomplete Types
          • 16.16.1.17. Callback functions
          • 16.16.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls
          • 16.16.1.19. Surprises
          • 16.16.1.20. Variable-sized data types
        • 16.16.2. ctypes reference
          • 16.16.2.1. Finding shared libraries
          • 16.16.2.2. Loading shared libraries
          • 16.16.2.3. Foreign functions
          • 16.16.2.4. Function prototypes
          • 16.16.2.5. Utility functions
          • 16.16.2.6. Data types
          • 16.16.2.7. Fundamental data types
          • 16.16.2.8. Structured data types
          • 16.16.2.9. Arrays and pointers
    • 17. Concurrent Execution
      • 17.1. threading — Thread-based parallelism
        • 17.1.1. Thread-Local Data
        • 17.1.2. Thread Objects
        • 17.1.3. Lock Objects
        • 17.1.4. RLock Objects
        • 17.1.5. Condition Objects
        • 17.1.6. Semaphore Objects
          • 17.1.6.1. Semaphore Example
        • 17.1.7. Event Objects
        • 17.1.8. Timer Objects
        • 17.1.9. Barrier Objects
        • 17.1.10. Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement
      • 17.2. multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism
        • 17.2.1. Introduction
          • 17.2.1.1. The Process class
          • 17.2.1.2. Contexts and start methods
          • 17.2.1.3. Exchanging objects between processes
          • 17.2.1.4. Synchronization between processes
          • 17.2.1.5. Sharing state between processes
          • 17.2.1.6. Using a pool of workers
        • 17.2.2. Reference
          • 17.2.2.1. Process and exceptions
          • 17.2.2.2. Pipes and Queues
          • 17.2.2.3. Miscellaneous
          • 17.2.2.4. Connection Objects
          • 17.2.2.5. Synchronization primitives
          • 17.2.2.6. Shared ctypes Objects
            • 17.2.2.6.1. The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module
          • 17.2.2.7. Managers
            • 17.2.2.7.1. Namespace objects
            • 17.2.2.7.2. Customized managers
            • 17.2.2.7.3. Using a remote manager
          • 17.2.2.8. Proxy Objects
            • 17.2.2.8.1. Cleanup
          • 17.2.2.9. Process Pools
          • 17.2.2.10. Listeners and Clients
            • 17.2.2.10.1. Address Formats
          • 17.2.2.11. Authentication keys
          • 17.2.2.12. Logging
          • 17.2.2.13. The multiprocessing.dummy module
        • 17.2.3. Programming guidelines
          • 17.2.3.1. All start methods
          • 17.2.3.2. The spawn and forkserver start methods
        • 17.2.4. Examples
      • 17.3. The concurrent package
      • 17.4. concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks
        • 17.4.1. Executor Objects
        • 17.4.2. ThreadPoolExecutor
          • 17.4.2.1. ThreadPoolExecutor Example
        • 17.4.3. ProcessPoolExecutor
          • 17.4.3.1. ProcessPoolExecutor Example
        • 17.4.4. Future Objects
        • 17.4.5. Module Functions
        • 17.4.6. Exception classes
      • 17.5. subprocess — Subprocess management
        • 17.5.1. Using the subprocess Module
          • 17.5.1.1. Frequently Used Arguments
          • 17.5.1.2. Popen Constructor
          • 17.5.1.3. Exceptions
        • 17.5.2. Security Considerations
        • 17.5.3. Popen Objects
        • 17.5.4. Windows Popen Helpers
          • 17.5.4.1. Constants
        • 17.5.5. Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module
          • 17.5.5.1. Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote
          • 17.5.5.2. Replacing shell pipeline
          • 17.5.5.3. Replacing os.system()
          • 17.5.5.4. Replacing the os.spawn family
          • 17.5.5.5. Replacing os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3()
          • 17.5.5.6. Replacing functions from the popen2 module
        • 17.5.6. Legacy Shell Invocation Functions
        • 17.5.7. Notes
          • 17.5.7.1. Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows
      • 17.6. sched — Event scheduler
        • 17.6.1. Scheduler Objects
      • 17.7. queue — A synchronized queue class
        • 17.7.1. Queue Objects
      • 17.8. dummy_threading — Drop-in replacement for the threading module
      • 17.9. _thread — Low-level threading API
      • 17.10. _dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module
    • 18. Interprocess Communication and Networking
      • 18.1. socket — Low-level networking interface
        • 18.1.1. Socket families
        • 18.1.2. Module contents
          • 18.1.2.1. Exceptions
          • 18.1.2.2. Constants
          • 18.1.2.3. Functions
            • 18.1.2.3.1. Creating sockets
            • 18.1.2.3.2. Other functions
        • 18.1.3. Socket Objects
        • 18.1.4. Notes on socket timeouts
          • 18.1.4.1. Timeouts and the connect method
          • 18.1.4.2. Timeouts and the accept method
        • 18.1.5. Example
      • 18.2. ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
        • 18.2.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions
          • 18.2.1.1. Socket creation
          • 18.2.1.2. Context creation
          • 18.2.1.3. Random generation
          • 18.2.1.4. Certificate handling
          • 18.2.1.5. Constants
        • 18.2.2. SSL Sockets
        • 18.2.3. SSL Contexts
        • 18.2.4. Certificates
          • 18.2.4.1. Certificate chains
          • 18.2.4.2. CA certificates
          • 18.2.4.3. Combined key and certificate
          • 18.2.4.4. Self-signed certificates
        • 18.2.5. Examples
          • 18.2.5.1. Testing for SSL support
          • 18.2.5.2. Client-side operation
          • 18.2.5.3. Server-side operation
        • 18.2.6. Notes on non-blocking sockets
        • 18.2.7. Security considerations
          • 18.2.7.1. Best defaults
          • 18.2.7.2. Manual settings
            • 18.2.7.2.1. Verifying certificates
            • 18.2.7.2.2. Protocol versions
            • 18.2.7.2.3. Cipher selection
          • 18.2.7.3. Multi-processing
      • 18.3. select — Waiting for I/O completion
        • 18.3.1. /dev/poll Polling Objects
        • 18.3.2. Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects
        • 18.3.3. Polling Objects
        • 18.3.4. Kqueue Objects
        • 18.3.5. Kevent Objects
      • 18.4. selectors – High-level I/O multiplexing
        • 18.4.1. Introduction
        • 18.4.2. Classes
        • 18.4.3. Examples
      • 18.5. asyncio – Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks
        • 18.5.1. Base Event Loop
          • 18.5.1.1. Run an event loop
          • 18.5.1.2. Calls
          • 18.5.1.3. Delayed calls
          • 18.5.1.4. Tasks
          • 18.5.1.5. Creating connections
          • 18.5.1.6. Creating listening connections
          • 18.5.1.7. Watch file descriptors
          • 18.5.1.8. Low-level socket operations
          • 18.5.1.9. Resolve host name
          • 18.5.1.10. Connect pipes
          • 18.5.1.11. UNIX signals
          • 18.5.1.12. Executor
          • 18.5.1.13. Error Handling API
          • 18.5.1.14. Debug mode
          • 18.5.1.15. Server
          • 18.5.1.16. Handle
          • 18.5.1.17. Event loop examples
            • 18.5.1.17.1. Hello World with call_soon()
            • 18.5.1.17.2. Display the current date with call_later()
            • 18.5.1.17.3. Watch a file descriptor for read events
            • 18.5.1.17.4. Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM
        • 18.5.2. Event loops
          • 18.5.2.1. Event loop functions
          • 18.5.2.2. Available event loops
          • 18.5.2.3. Platform support
            • 18.5.2.3.1. Windows
            • 18.5.2.3.2. Mac OS X
          • 18.5.2.4. Event loop policies and the default policy
          • 18.5.2.5. Event loop policy interface
          • 18.5.2.6. Access to the global loop policy
        • 18.5.3. Tasks and coroutines
          • 18.5.3.1. Coroutines
            • 18.5.3.1.1. Example: Hello World coroutine
            • 18.5.3.1.2. Example: Coroutine displaying the current date
            • 18.5.3.1.3. Example: Chain coroutines
          • 18.5.3.2. InvalidStateError
          • 18.5.3.3. TimeoutError
          • 18.5.3.4. Future
            • 18.5.3.4.1. Example: Future with run_until_complete()
            • 18.5.3.4.2. Example: Future with run_forever()
          • 18.5.3.5. Task
            • 18.5.3.5.1. Example: Parallel execution of tasks
          • 18.5.3.6. Task functions
        • 18.5.4. Transports and protocols (callback based API)
          • 18.5.4.1. Transports
            • 18.5.4.1.1. BaseTransport
            • 18.5.4.1.2. ReadTransport
            • 18.5.4.1.3. WriteTransport
            • 18.5.4.1.4. DatagramTransport
            • 18.5.4.1.5. BaseSubprocessTransport
          • 18.5.4.2. Protocols
            • 18.5.4.2.1. Protocol classes
            • 18.5.4.2.2. Connection callbacks
            • 18.5.4.2.3. Streaming protocols
            • 18.5.4.2.4. Datagram protocols
            • 18.5.4.2.5. Flow control callbacks
            • 18.5.4.2.6. Coroutines and protocols
          • 18.5.4.3. Protocol examples
            • 18.5.4.3.1. TCP echo client protocol
            • 18.5.4.3.2. TCP echo server protocol
            • 18.5.4.3.3. UDP echo client protocol
            • 18.5.4.3.4. UDP echo server protocol
            • 18.5.4.3.5. Register an open socket to wait for data using a protocol
        • 18.5.5. Streams (coroutine based API)
          • 18.5.5.1. Stream functions
          • 18.5.5.2. StreamReader
          • 18.5.5.3. StreamWriter
          • 18.5.5.4. StreamReaderProtocol
          • 18.5.5.5. IncompleteReadError
          • 18.5.5.6. Stream examples
            • 18.5.5.6.1. TCP echo client using streams
            • 18.5.5.6.2. TCP echo server using streams
            • 18.5.5.6.3. Get HTTP headers
            • 18.5.5.6.4. Register an open socket to wait for data using streams
        • 18.5.6. Subprocess
          • 18.5.6.1. Windows event loop
          • 18.5.6.2. Create a subprocess: high-level API using Process
          • 18.5.6.3. Create a subprocess: low-level API using subprocess.Popen
          • 18.5.6.4. Constants
          • 18.5.6.5. Process
          • 18.5.6.6. Subprocess and threads
          • 18.5.6.7. Subprocess examples
            • 18.5.6.7.1. Subprocess using transport and protocol
            • 18.5.6.7.2. Subprocess using streams
        • 18.5.7. Synchronization primitives
          • 18.5.7.1. Locks
            • 18.5.7.1.1. Lock
            • 18.5.7.1.2. Event
            • 18.5.7.1.3. Condition
          • 18.5.7.2. Semaphores
            • 18.5.7.2.1. Semaphore
            • 18.5.7.2.2. BoundedSemaphore
        • 18.5.8. Queues
          • 18.5.8.1. Queue
          • 18.5.8.2. PriorityQueue
          • 18.5.8.3. LifoQueue
            • 18.5.8.3.1. JoinableQueue
            • 18.5.8.3.2. Exceptions
        • 18.5.9. Develop with asyncio
          • 18.5.9.1. Debug mode of asyncio
          • 18.5.9.2. Cancellation
          • 18.5.9.3. Concurrency and multithreading
          • 18.5.9.4. Handle blocking functions correctly
          • 18.5.9.5. Logging
          • 18.5.9.6. Detect coroutine objects never scheduled
          • 18.5.9.7. Detect exceptions never consumed
          • 18.5.9.8. Chain coroutines correctly
          • 18.5.9.9. Pending task destroyed
          • 18.5.9.10. Close transports and event loops
      • 18.6. asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler
        • 18.6.1. asyncore Example basic HTTP client
        • 18.6.2. asyncore Example basic echo server
      • 18.7. asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler
        • 18.7.1. asynchat - Auxiliary Classes
        • 18.7.2. asynchat Example
      • 18.8. signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events
        • 18.8.1. General rules
          • 18.8.1.1. Execution of Python signal handlers
          • 18.8.1.2. Signals and threads
        • 18.8.2. Module contents
        • 18.8.3. Example
      • 18.9. mmap — Memory-mapped file support
    • 19. Internet Data Handling
      • 19.1. email — An email and MIME handling package
        • 19.1.1. email.message: Representing an email message
        • 19.1.2. email.parser: Parsing email messages
          • 19.1.2.1. FeedParser API
          • 19.1.2.2. Parser class API
          • 19.1.2.3. Additional notes
        • 19.1.3. email.generator: Generating MIME documents
        • 19.1.4. email.policy: Policy Objects
        • 19.1.5. email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects
        • 19.1.6. email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content
          • 19.1.6.1. Content Manager Instances
        • 19.1.7. email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch
        • 19.1.8. email.header: Internationalized headers
        • 19.1.9. email.charset: Representing character sets
        • 19.1.10. email.encoders: Encoders
        • 19.1.11. email.errors: Exception and Defect classes
        • 19.1.12. email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities
        • 19.1.13. email.iterators: Iterators
        • 19.1.14. email: Examples
          • 19.1.14.1. Examples using the Provisional API
        • 19.1.15. Package History
        • 19.1.16. Differences from mimelib
      • 19.2. json — JSON encoder and decoder
        • 19.2.1. Basic Usage
        • 19.2.2. Encoders and Decoders
        • 19.2.3. Standard Compliance and Interoperability
          • 19.2.3.1. Character Encodings
          • 19.2.3.2. Infinite and NaN Number Values
          • 19.2.3.3. Repeated Names Within an Object
          • 19.2.3.4. Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values
          • 19.2.3.5. Implementation Limitations
      • 19.3. mailcap — Mailcap file handling
      • 19.4. mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
        • 19.4.1. Mailbox objects
          • 19.4.1.1. Maildir
          • 19.4.1.2. mbox
          • 19.4.1.3. MH
          • 19.4.1.4. Babyl
          • 19.4.1.5. MMDF
        • 19.4.2. Message objects
          • 19.4.2.1. MaildirMessage
          • 19.4.2.2. mboxMessage
          • 19.4.2.3. MHMessage
          • 19.4.2.4. BabylMessage
          • 19.4.2.5. MMDFMessage
        • 19.4.3. Exceptions
        • 19.4.4. Examples
      • 19.5. mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types
        • 19.5.1. MimeTypes Objects
      • 19.6. base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings
      • 19.7. binhex — Encode and decode binhex4 files
        • 19.7.1. Notes
      • 19.8. binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII
      • 19.9. quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
      • 19.10. uu — Encode and decode uuencode files
    • 20. Structured Markup Processing Tools
      • 20.1. html — HyperText Markup Language support
      • 20.2. html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser
        • 20.2.1. Example HTML Parser Application
        • 20.2.2. HTMLParser Methods
        • 20.2.3. Examples
      • 20.3. html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities
      • 20.4. XML Processing Modules
        • 20.4.1. XML vulnerabilities
        • 20.4.2. The defusedxml and defusedexpat Packages
      • 20.5. xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API
        • 20.5.1. Tutorial
          • 20.5.1.1. XML tree and elements
          • 20.5.1.2. Parsing XML
          • 20.5.1.3. Pull API for non-blocking parsing
          • 20.5.1.4. Finding interesting elements
          • 20.5.1.5. Modifying an XML File
          • 20.5.1.6. Building XML documents
          • 20.5.1.7. Parsing XML with Namespaces
          • 20.5.1.8. Additional resources
        • 20.5.2. XPath support
          • 20.5.2.1. Example
          • 20.5.2.2. Supported XPath syntax
        • 20.5.3. Reference
          • 20.5.3.1. Functions
          • 20.5.3.2. Element Objects
          • 20.5.3.3. ElementTree Objects
          • 20.5.3.4. QName Objects
          • 20.5.3.5. TreeBuilder Objects
          • 20.5.3.6. XMLParser Objects
          • 20.5.3.7. XMLPullParser Objects
          • 20.5.3.8. Exceptions
      • 20.6. xml.dom — The Document Object Model API
        • 20.6.1. Module Contents
        • 20.6.2. Objects in the DOM
          • 20.6.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects
          • 20.6.2.2. Node Objects
          • 20.6.2.3. NodeList Objects
          • 20.6.2.4. DocumentType Objects
          • 20.6.2.5. Document Objects
          • 20.6.2.6. Element Objects
          • 20.6.2.7. Attr Objects
          • 20.6.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects
          • 20.6.2.9. Comment Objects
          • 20.6.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects
          • 20.6.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects
          • 20.6.2.12. Exceptions
        • 20.6.3. Conformance
          • 20.6.3.1. Type Mapping
          • 20.6.3.2. Accessor Methods
      • 20.7. xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation
        • 20.7.1. DOM Objects
        • 20.7.2. DOM Example
        • 20.7.3. minidom and the DOM standard
      • 20.8. xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees
        • 20.8.1. DOMEventStream Objects
      • 20.9. xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers
        • 20.9.1. SAXException Objects
      • 20.10. xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers
        • 20.10.1. ContentHandler Objects
        • 20.10.2. DTDHandler Objects
        • 20.10.3. EntityResolver Objects
        • 20.10.4. ErrorHandler Objects
      • 20.11. xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities
      • 20.12. xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers
        • 20.12.1. XMLReader Objects
        • 20.12.2. IncrementalParser Objects
        • 20.12.3. Locator Objects
        • 20.12.4. InputSource Objects
        • 20.12.5. The Attributes Interface
        • 20.12.6. The AttributesNS Interface
      • 20.13. xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat
        • 20.13.1. XMLParser Objects
        • 20.13.2. ExpatError Exceptions
        • 20.13.3. Example
        • 20.13.4. Content Model Descriptions
        • 20.13.5. Expat error constants
    • 21. Internet Protocols and Support
      • 21.1. webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller
        • 21.1.1. Browser Controller Objects
      • 21.2. cgi — Common Gateway Interface support
        • 21.2.1. Introduction
        • 21.2.2. Using the cgi module
        • 21.2.3. Higher Level Interface
        • 21.2.4. Functions
        • 21.2.5. Caring about security
        • 21.2.6. Installing your CGI script on a Unix system
        • 21.2.7. Testing your CGI script
        • 21.2.8. Debugging CGI scripts
        • 21.2.9. Common problems and solutions
      • 21.3. cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts
      • 21.4. wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
        • 21.4.1. wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities
        • 21.4.2. wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools
        • 21.4.3. wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server
        • 21.4.4. wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker
        • 21.4.5. wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes
        • 21.4.6. Examples
      • 21.5. urllib — URL handling modules
      • 21.6. urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs
        • 21.6.1. Request Objects
        • 21.6.2. OpenerDirector Objects
        • 21.6.3. BaseHandler Objects
        • 21.6.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
        • 21.6.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
        • 21.6.6. ProxyHandler Objects
        • 21.6.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
        • 21.6.8. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
        • 21.6.9. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
        • 21.6.10. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
        • 21.6.11. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
        • 21.6.12. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
        • 21.6.13. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
        • 21.6.14. HTTPHandler Objects
        • 21.6.15. HTTPSHandler Objects
        • 21.6.16. FileHandler Objects
        • 21.6.17. DataHandler Objects
        • 21.6.18. FTPHandler Objects
        • 21.6.19. CacheFTPHandler Objects
        • 21.6.20. UnknownHandler Objects
        • 21.6.21. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
        • 21.6.22. Examples
        • 21.6.23. Legacy interface
        • 21.6.24. urllib.request Restrictions
      • 21.7. urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib
      • 21.8. urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components
        • 21.8.1. URL Parsing
        • 21.8.2. Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes
        • 21.8.3. Structured Parse Results
        • 21.8.4. URL Quoting
      • 21.9. urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request
      • 21.10. urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt
      • 21.11. http — HTTP modules
      • 21.12. http.client — HTTP protocol client
        • 21.12.1. HTTPConnection Objects
        • 21.12.2. HTTPResponse Objects
        • 21.12.3. Examples
        • 21.12.4. HTTPMessage Objects
      • 21.13. ftplib — FTP protocol client
        • 21.13.1. FTP Objects
        • 21.13.2. FTP_TLS Objects
      • 21.14. poplib — POP3 protocol client
        • 21.14.1. POP3 Objects
        • 21.14.2. POP3 Example
      • 21.15. imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client
        • 21.15.1. IMAP4 Objects
        • 21.15.2. IMAP4 Example
      • 21.16. nntplib — NNTP protocol client
        • 21.16.1. NNTP Objects
          • 21.16.1.1. Attributes
          • 21.16.1.2. Methods
        • 21.16.2. Utility functions
      • 21.17. smtplib — SMTP protocol client
        • 21.17.1. SMTP Objects
        • 21.17.2. SMTP Example
      • 21.18. smtpd — SMTP Server
        • 21.18.1. SMTPServer Objects
        • 21.18.2. DebuggingServer Objects
        • 21.18.3. PureProxy Objects
        • 21.18.4. MailmanProxy Objects
        • 21.18.5. SMTPChannel Objects
      • 21.19. telnetlib — Telnet client
        • 21.19.1. Telnet Objects
        • 21.19.2. Telnet Example
      • 21.20. uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122
        • 21.20.1. Example
      • 21.21. socketserver — A framework for network servers
        • 21.21.1. Server Creation Notes
        • 21.21.2. Server Objects
        • 21.21.3. RequestHandler Objects
        • 21.21.4. Examples
          • 21.21.4.1. socketserver.TCPServer Example
          • 21.21.4.2. socketserver.UDPServer Example
          • 21.21.4.3. Asynchronous Mixins
      • 21.22. http.server — HTTP servers
      • 21.23. http.cookies — HTTP state management
        • 21.23.1. Cookie Objects
        • 21.23.2. Morsel Objects
        • 21.23.3. Example
      • 21.24. http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients
        • 21.24.1. CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects
        • 21.24.2. FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers
        • 21.24.3. CookiePolicy Objects
        • 21.24.4. DefaultCookiePolicy Objects
        • 21.24.5. Cookie Objects
        • 21.24.6. Examples
      • 21.25. xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules
      • 21.26. xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access
        • 21.26.1. ServerProxy Objects
        • 21.26.2. DateTime Objects
        • 21.26.3. Binary Objects
        • 21.26.4. Fault Objects
        • 21.26.5. ProtocolError Objects
        • 21.26.6. MultiCall Objects
        • 21.26.7. Convenience Functions
        • 21.26.8. Example of Client Usage
        • 21.26.9. Example of Client and Server Usage
      • 21.27. xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers
        • 21.27.1. SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects
          • 21.27.1.1. SimpleXMLRPCServer Example
        • 21.27.2. CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
        • 21.27.3. Documenting XMLRPC server
        • 21.27.4. DocXMLRPCServer Objects
        • 21.27.5. DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
      • 21.28. ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
        • 21.28.1. Convenience factory functions
        • 21.28.2. IP Addresses
          • 21.28.2.1. Address objects
          • 21.28.2.2. Conversion to Strings and Integers
          • 21.28.2.3. Operators
            • 21.28.2.3.1. Comparison operators
            • 21.28.2.3.2. Arithmetic operators
        • 21.28.3. IP Network definitions
          • 21.28.3.1. Prefix, net mask and host mask
          • 21.28.3.2. Network objects
          • 21.28.3.3. Operators
            • 21.28.3.3.1. Logical operators
            • 21.28.3.3.2. Iteration
            • 21.28.3.3.3. Networks as containers of addresses
        • 21.28.4. Interface objects
        • 21.28.5. Other Module Level Functions
        • 21.28.6. Custom Exceptions
    • 22. Multimedia Services
      • 22.1. audioop — Manipulate raw audio data
      • 22.2. aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
      • 22.3. sunau — Read and write Sun AU files
        • 22.3.1. AU_read Objects
        • 22.3.2. AU_write Objects
      • 22.4. wave — Read and write WAV files
        • 22.4.1. Wave_read Objects
        • 22.4.2. Wave_write Objects
      • 22.5. chunk — Read IFF chunked data
      • 22.6. colorsys — Conversions between color systems
      • 22.7. imghdr — Determine the type of an image
      • 22.8. sndhdr — Determine type of sound file
      • 22.9. ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
        • 22.9.1. Audio Device Objects
        • 22.9.2. Mixer Device Objects
    • 23. Internationalization
      • 23.1. gettext — Multilingual internationalization services
        • 23.1.1. GNU gettext API
        • 23.1.2. Class-based API
          • 23.1.2.1. The NullTranslations class
          • 23.1.2.2. The GNUTranslations class
          • 23.1.2.3. Solaris message catalog support
          • 23.1.2.4. The Catalog constructor
        • 23.1.3. Internationalizing your programs and modules
          • 23.1.3.1. Localizing your module
          • 23.1.3.2. Localizing your application
          • 23.1.3.3. Changing languages on the fly
          • 23.1.3.4. Deferred translations
        • 23.1.4. Acknowledgements
      • 23.2. locale — Internationalization services
        • 23.2.1. Background, details, hints, tips and caveats
        • 23.2.2. For extension writers and programs that embed Python
        • 23.2.3. Access to message catalogs
    • 24. Program Frameworks
      • 24.1. turtle — Turtle graphics
        • 24.1.1. Introduction
        • 24.1.2. Overview of available Turtle and Screen methods
          • 24.1.2.1. Turtle methods
          • 24.1.2.2. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen
        • 24.1.3. Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions
          • 24.1.3.1. Turtle motion
          • 24.1.3.2. Tell Turtle’s state
          • 24.1.3.3. Settings for measurement
          • 24.1.3.4. Pen control
            • 24.1.3.4.1. Drawing state
            • 24.1.3.4.2. Color control
            • 24.1.3.4.3. Filling
            • 24.1.3.4.4. More drawing control
          • 24.1.3.5. Turtle state
            • 24.1.3.5.1. Visibility
            • 24.1.3.5.2. Appearance
          • 24.1.3.6. Using events
          • 24.1.3.7. Special Turtle methods
          • 24.1.3.8. Compound shapes
        • 24.1.4. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions
          • 24.1.4.1. Window control
          • 24.1.4.2. Animation control
          • 24.1.4.3. Using screen events
          • 24.1.4.4. Input methods
          • 24.1.4.5. Settings and special methods
          • 24.1.4.6. Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen
        • 24.1.5. Public classes
        • 24.1.6. Help and configuration
          • 24.1.6.1. How to use help
          • 24.1.6.2. Translation of docstrings into different languages
          • 24.1.6.3. How to configure Screen and Turtles
        • 24.1.7. turtledemo — Demo scripts
        • 24.1.8. Changes since Python 2.6
        • 24.1.9. Changes since Python 3.0
      • 24.2. cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters
        • 24.2.1. Cmd Objects
        • 24.2.2. Cmd Example
      • 24.3. shlex — Simple lexical analysis
        • 24.3.1. shlex Objects
        • 24.3.2. Parsing Rules
    • 25. Graphical User Interfaces with Tk
      • 25.1. tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk
        • 25.1.1. Tkinter Modules
        • 25.1.2. Tkinter Life Preserver
          • 25.1.2.1. How To Use This Section
          • 25.1.2.2. A Simple Hello World Program
        • 25.1.3. A (Very) Quick Look at Tcl/Tk
        • 25.1.4. Mapping Basic Tk into Tkinter
        • 25.1.5. How Tk and Tkinter are Related
        • 25.1.6. Handy Reference
          • 25.1.6.1. Setting Options
          • 25.1.6.2. The Packer
          • 25.1.6.3. Packer Options
          • 25.1.6.4. Coupling Widget Variables
          • 25.1.6.5. The Window Manager
          • 25.1.6.6. Tk Option Data Types
          • 25.1.6.7. Bindings and Events
          • 25.1.6.8. The index Parameter
          • 25.1.6.9. Images
        • 25.1.7. File Handlers
      • 25.2. tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets
        • 25.2.1. Using Ttk
        • 25.2.2. Ttk Widgets
        • 25.2.3. Widget
          • 25.2.3.1. Standard Options
          • 25.2.3.2. Scrollable Widget Options
          • 25.2.3.3. Label Options
          • 25.2.3.4. Compatibility Options
          • 25.2.3.5. Widget States
          • 25.2.3.6. ttk.Widget
        • 25.2.4. Combobox
          • 25.2.4.1. Options
          • 25.2.4.2. Virtual events
          • 25.2.4.3. ttk.Combobox
        • 25.2.5. Notebook
          • 25.2.5.1. Options
          • 25.2.5.2. Tab Options
          • 25.2.5.3. Tab Identifiers
          • 25.2.5.4. Virtual Events
          • 25.2.5.5. ttk.Notebook
        • 25.2.6. Progressbar
          • 25.2.6.1. Options
          • 25.2.6.2. ttk.Progressbar
        • 25.2.7. Separator
          • 25.2.7.1. Options
        • 25.2.8. Sizegrip
          • 25.2.8.1. Platform-specific notes
          • 25.2.8.2. Bugs
        • 25.2.9. Treeview
          • 25.2.9.1. Options
          • 25.2.9.2. Item Options
          • 25.2.9.3. Tag Options
          • 25.2.9.4. Column Identifiers
          • 25.2.9.5. Virtual Events
          • 25.2.9.6. ttk.Treeview
        • 25.2.10. Ttk Styling
          • 25.2.10.1. Layouts
      • 25.3. tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk
        • 25.3.1. Using Tix
        • 25.3.2. Tix Widgets
          • 25.3.2.1. Basic Widgets
          • 25.3.2.2. File Selectors
          • 25.3.2.3. Hierarchical ListBox
          • 25.3.2.4. Tabular ListBox
          • 25.3.2.5. Manager Widgets
          • 25.3.2.6. Image Types
          • 25.3.2.7. Miscellaneous Widgets
          • 25.3.2.8. Form Geometry Manager
        • 25.3.3. Tix Commands
      • 25.4. tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget
      • 25.5. IDLE
        • 25.5.1. Menus
          • 25.5.1.1. File menu (Shell and Editor)
          • 25.5.1.2. Edit menu (Shell and Editor)
          • 25.5.1.3. Format menu (Editor window only)
          • 25.5.1.4. Run menu (Editor window only)
          • 25.5.1.5. Shell menu (Shell window only)
          • 25.5.1.6. Debug menu (Shell window only)
          • 25.5.1.7. Options menu (Shell and Editor)
          • 25.5.1.8. Window menu (Shell and Editor)
          • 25.5.1.9. Help menu (Shell and Editor)
          • 25.5.1.10. Context Menus
        • 25.5.2. Editing and navigation
          • 25.5.2.1. Automatic indentation
          • 25.5.2.2. Completions
          • 25.5.2.3. Calltips
          • 25.5.2.4. Python Shell window
          • 25.5.2.5. Text colors
        • 25.5.3. Startup and code execution
          • 25.5.3.1. Command line usage
          • 25.5.3.2. IDLE-console differences
          • 25.5.3.3. Running without a subprocess
        • 25.5.4. Help and preferences
          • 25.5.4.1. Additional help sources
          • 25.5.4.2. Setting preferences
          • 25.5.4.3. Extensions
      • 25.6. Other Graphical User Interface Packages
    • 26. Development Tools
      • 26.1. pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system
      • 26.2. doctest — Test interactive Python examples
        • 26.2.1. Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings
        • 26.2.2. Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File
        • 26.2.3. How It Works
          • 26.2.3.1. Which Docstrings Are Examined?
          • 26.2.3.2. How are Docstring Examples Recognized?
          • 26.2.3.3. What’s the Execution Context?
          • 26.2.3.4. What About Exceptions?
          • 26.2.3.5. Option Flags
          • 26.2.3.6. Directives
          • 26.2.3.7. Warnings
        • 26.2.4. Basic API
        • 26.2.5. Unittest API
        • 26.2.6. Advanced API
          • 26.2.6.1. DocTest Objects
          • 26.2.6.2. Example Objects
          • 26.2.6.3. DocTestFinder objects
          • 26.2.6.4. DocTestParser objects
          • 26.2.6.5. DocTestRunner objects
          • 26.2.6.6. OutputChecker objects
        • 26.2.7. Debugging
        • 26.2.8. Soapbox
      • 26.3. unittest — Unit testing framework
        • 26.3.1. Basic example
        • 26.3.2. Command-Line Interface
          • 26.3.2.1. Command-line options
        • 26.3.3. Test Discovery
        • 26.3.4. Organizing test code
        • 26.3.5. Re-using old test code
        • 26.3.6. Skipping tests and expected failures
        • 26.3.7. Distinguishing test iterations using subtests
        • 26.3.8. Classes and functions
          • 26.3.8.1. Test cases
            • 26.3.8.1.1. Deprecated aliases
          • 26.3.8.2. Grouping tests
          • 26.3.8.3. Loading and running tests
            • 26.3.8.3.1. load_tests Protocol
        • 26.3.9. Class and Module Fixtures
          • 26.3.9.1. setUpClass and tearDownClass
          • 26.3.9.2. setUpModule and tearDownModule
        • 26.3.10. Signal Handling
      • 26.4. unittest.mock — mock object library
        • 26.4.1. Quick Guide
        • 26.4.2. The Mock Class
          • 26.4.2.1. Calling
          • 26.4.2.2. Deleting Attributes
          • 26.4.2.3. Mock names and the name attribute
          • 26.4.2.4. Attaching Mocks as Attributes
        • 26.4.3. The patchers
          • 26.4.3.1. patch
          • 26.4.3.2. patch.object
          • 26.4.3.3. patch.dict
          • 26.4.3.4. patch.multiple
          • 26.4.3.5. patch methods: start and stop
          • 26.4.3.6. TEST_PREFIX
          • 26.4.3.7. Nesting Patch Decorators
          • 26.4.3.8. Where to patch
          • 26.4.3.9. Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects
        • 26.4.4. MagicMock and magic method support
          • 26.4.4.1. Mocking Magic Methods
          • 26.4.4.2. Magic Mock
        • 26.4.5. Helpers
          • 26.4.5.1. sentinel
          • 26.4.5.2. DEFAULT
          • 26.4.5.3. call
          • 26.4.5.4. create_autospec
          • 26.4.5.5. ANY
          • 26.4.5.6. FILTER_DIR
          • 26.4.5.7. mock_open
          • 26.4.5.8. Autospeccing
      • 26.5. unittest.mock — getting started
        • 26.5.1. Using Mock
          • 26.5.1.1. Mock Patching Methods
          • 26.5.1.2. Mock for Method Calls on an Object
          • 26.5.1.3. Mocking Classes
          • 26.5.1.4. Naming your mocks
          • 26.5.1.5. Tracking all Calls
          • 26.5.1.6. Setting Return Values and Attributes
          • 26.5.1.7. Raising exceptions with mocks
          • 26.5.1.8. Side effect functions and iterables
          • 26.5.1.9. Creating a Mock from an Existing Object
        • 26.5.2. Patch Decorators
        • 26.5.3. Further Examples
          • 26.5.3.1. Mocking chained calls
          • 26.5.3.2. Partial mocking
          • 26.5.3.3. Mocking a Generator Method
          • 26.5.3.4. Applying the same patch to every test method
          • 26.5.3.5. Mocking Unbound Methods
          • 26.5.3.6. Checking multiple calls with mock
          • 26.5.3.7. Coping with mutable arguments
          • 26.5.3.8. Nesting Patches
          • 26.5.3.9. Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock
          • 26.5.3.10. Mock subclasses and their attributes
          • 26.5.3.11. Mocking imports with patch.dict
          • 26.5.3.12. Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions
          • 26.5.3.13. More complex argument matching
      • 26.6. 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation
        • 26.6.1. Using 2to3
        • 26.6.2. Fixers
        • 26.6.3. lib2to3 - 2to3’s library
      • 26.7. test — Regression tests package for Python
        • 26.7.1. Writing Unit Tests for the test package
        • 26.7.2. Running tests using the command-line interface
      • 26.8. test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite
    • 27. Debugging and Profiling
      • 27.1. bdb — Debugger framework
      • 27.2. faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback
        • 27.2.1. Dumping the traceback
        • 27.2.2. Fault handler state
        • 27.2.3. Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout
        • 27.2.4. Dumping the traceback on a user signal
        • 27.2.5. Issue with file descriptors
        • 27.2.6. Example
      • 27.3. pdb — The Python Debugger
        • 27.3.1. Debugger Commands
      • 27.4. The Python Profilers
        • 27.4.1. Introduction to the profilers
        • 27.4.2. Instant User’s Manual
        • 27.4.3. profile and cProfile Module Reference
        • 27.4.4. The Stats Class
        • 27.4.5. What Is Deterministic Profiling?
        • 27.4.6. Limitations
        • 27.4.7. Calibration
        • 27.4.8. Using a custom timer
      • 27.5. timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets
        • 27.5.1. Basic Examples
        • 27.5.2. Python Interface
        • 27.5.3. Command-Line Interface
        • 27.5.4. Examples
      • 27.6. trace — Trace or track Python statement execution
        • 27.6.1. Command-Line Usage
          • 27.6.1.1. Main options
          • 27.6.1.2. Modifiers
          • 27.6.1.3. Filters
        • 27.6.2. Programmatic Interface
      • 27.7. tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations
        • 27.7.1. Examples
          • 27.7.1.1. Display the top 10
          • 27.7.1.2. Compute differences
          • 27.7.1.3. Get the traceback of a memory block
          • 27.7.1.4. Pretty top
        • 27.7.2. API
          • 27.7.2.1. Functions
          • 27.7.2.2. Filter
          • 27.7.2.3. Frame
          • 27.7.2.4. Snapshot
          • 27.7.2.5. Statistic
          • 27.7.2.6. StatisticDiff
          • 27.7.2.7. Trace
          • 27.7.2.8. Traceback
    • 28. Software Packaging and Distribution
      • 28.1. distutils — Building and installing Python modules
      • 28.2. ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer
        • 28.2.1. Command line interface
        • 28.2.2. Module API
      • 28.3. venv — Creation of virtual environments
        • 28.3.1. Creating virtual environments
        • 28.3.2. API
        • 28.3.3. An example of extending EnvBuilder
    • 29. Python Runtime Services
      • 29.1. sys — System-specific parameters and functions
      • 29.2. sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information
        • 29.2.1. Configuration variables
        • 29.2.2. Installation paths
        • 29.2.3. Other functions
        • 29.2.4. Using sysconfig as a script
      • 29.3. builtins — Built-in objects
      • 29.4. __main__ — Top-level script environment
      • 29.5. warnings — Warning control
        • 29.5.1. Warning Categories
        • 29.5.2. The Warnings Filter
          • 29.5.2.1. Default Warning Filters
        • 29.5.3. Temporarily Suppressing Warnings
        • 29.5.4. Testing Warnings
        • 29.5.5. Updating Code For New Versions of Python
        • 29.5.6. Available Functions
        • 29.5.7. Available Context Managers
      • 29.6. contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts
        • 29.6.1. Utilities
        • 29.6.2. Examples and Recipes
          • 29.6.2.1. Supporting a variable number of context managers
          • 29.6.2.2. Simplifying support for single optional context managers
          • 29.6.2.3. Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods
          • 29.6.2.4. Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation
          • 29.6.2.5. Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables
          • 29.6.2.6. Using a context manager as a function decorator
        • 29.6.3. Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers
          • 29.6.3.1. Reentrant context managers
          • 29.6.3.2. Reusable context managers
      • 29.7. abc — Abstract Base Classes
      • 29.8. atexit — Exit handlers
        • 29.8.1. atexit Example
      • 29.9. traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback
        • 29.9.1. Traceback Examples
      • 29.10. __future__ — Future statement definitions
      • 29.11. gc — Garbage Collector interface
      • 29.12. inspect — Inspect live objects
        • 29.12.1. Types and members
        • 29.12.2. Retrieving source code
        • 29.12.3. Introspecting callables with the Signature object
        • 29.12.4. Classes and functions
        • 29.12.5. The interpreter stack
        • 29.12.6. Fetching attributes statically
        • 29.12.7. Current State of a Generator
        • 29.12.8. Command Line Interface
      • 29.13. site — Site-specific configuration hook
        • 29.13.1. Readline configuration
        • 29.13.2. Module contents
      • 29.14. fpectl — Floating point exception control
        • 29.14.1. Example
        • 29.14.2. Limitations and other considerations
    • 30. Custom Python Interpreters
      • 30.1. code — Interpreter base classes
        • 30.1.1. Interactive Interpreter Objects
        • 30.1.2. Interactive Console Objects
      • 30.2. codeop — Compile Python code
    • 31. Importing Modules
      • 31.1. zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives
        • 31.1.1. zipimporter Objects
        • 31.1.2. Examples
      • 31.2. pkgutil — Package extension utility
      • 31.3. modulefinder — Find modules used by a script
        • 31.3.1. Example usage of ModuleFinder
      • 31.4. runpy — Locating and executing Python modules
      • 31.5. importlib – The implementation of import
        • 31.5.1. Introduction
        • 31.5.2. Functions
        • 31.5.3. importlib.abc – Abstract base classes related to import
        • 31.5.4. importlib.machinery – Importers and path hooks
        • 31.5.5. importlib.util – Utility code for importers
    • 32. Python Language Services
      • 32.1. parser — Access Python parse trees
        • 32.1.1. Creating ST Objects
        • 32.1.2. Converting ST Objects
        • 32.1.3. Queries on ST Objects
        • 32.1.4. Exceptions and Error Handling
        • 32.1.5. ST Objects
        • 32.1.6. Example: Emulation of compile()
      • 32.2. ast — Abstract Syntax Trees
        • 32.2.1. Node classes
        • 32.2.2. Abstract Grammar
        • 32.2.3. ast Helpers
      • 32.3. symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables
        • 32.3.1. Generating Symbol Tables
        • 32.3.2. Examining Symbol Tables
      • 32.4. symbol — Constants used with Python parse trees
      • 32.5. token — Constants used with Python parse trees
      • 32.6. keyword — Testing for Python keywords
      • 32.7. tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source
        • 32.7.1. Tokenizing Input
        • 32.7.2. Command-Line Usage
        • 32.7.3. Examples
      • 32.8. tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation
      • 32.9. pyclbr — Python class browser support
        • 32.9.1. Class Objects
        • 32.9.2. Function Objects
      • 32.10. py_compile — Compile Python source files
      • 32.11. compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries
        • 32.11.1. Command-line use
        • 32.11.2. Public functions
      • 32.12. dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode
        • 32.12.1. Bytecode analysis
        • 32.12.2. Analysis functions
        • 32.12.3. Python Bytecode Instructions
        • 32.12.4. Opcode collections
      • 32.13. pickletools — Tools for pickle developers
        • 32.13.1. Command line usage
          • 32.13.1.1. Command line options
        • 32.13.2. Programmatic Interface
    • 33. Miscellaneous Services
      • 33.1. formatter — Generic output formatting
        • 33.1.1. The Formatter Interface
        • 33.1.2. Formatter Implementations
        • 33.1.3. The Writer Interface
        • 33.1.4. Writer Implementations
    • 34. MS Windows Specific Services
      • 34.1. msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files
        • 34.1.1. Database Objects
        • 34.1.2. View Objects
        • 34.1.3. Summary Information Objects
        • 34.1.4. Record Objects
        • 34.1.5. Errors
        • 34.1.6. CAB Objects
        • 34.1.7. Directory Objects
        • 34.1.8. Features
        • 34.1.9. GUI classes
        • 34.1.10. Precomputed tables
      • 34.2. msvcrt – Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
        • 34.2.1. File Operations
        • 34.2.2. Console I/O
        • 34.2.3. Other Functions
      • 34.3. winreg – Windows registry access
        • 34.3.1. Functions
        • 34.3.2. Constants
          • 34.3.2.1. HKEY_* Constants
          • 34.3.2.2. Access Rights
            • 34.3.2.2.1. 64-bit Specific
          • 34.3.2.3. Value Types
        • 34.3.3. Registry Handle Objects
      • 34.4. winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows
    • 35. Unix Specific Services
      • 35.1. posix — The most common POSIX system calls
        • 35.1.1. Large File Support
        • 35.1.2. Notable Module Contents
      • 35.2. pwd — The password database
      • 35.3. spwd — The shadow password database
      • 35.4. grp — The group database
      • 35.5. crypt — Function to check Unix passwords
        • 35.5.1. Hashing Methods
        • 35.5.2. Module Attributes
        • 35.5.3. Module Functions
        • 35.5.4. Examples
      • 35.6. termios — POSIX style tty control
        • 35.6.1. Example
      • 35.7. tty — Terminal control functions
      • 35.8. pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities
        • 35.8.1. Example
      • 35.9. fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls
      • 35.10. pipes — Interface to shell pipelines
        • 35.10.1. Template Objects
      • 35.11. resource — Resource usage information
        • 35.11.1. Resource Limits
        • 35.11.2. Resource Usage
      • 35.12. nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)
      • 35.13. syslog — Unix syslog library routines
        • 35.13.1. Examples
          • 35.13.1.1. Simple example
    • 36. Superseded Modules
      • 36.1. optparse — Parser for command line options
        • 36.1.1. Background
          • 36.1.1.1. Terminology
          • 36.1.1.2. What are options for?
          • 36.1.1.3. What are positional arguments for?
        • 36.1.2. Tutorial
          • 36.1.2.1. Understanding option actions
          • 36.1.2.2. The store action
          • 36.1.2.3. Handling boolean (flag) options
          • 36.1.2.4. Other actions
          • 36.1.2.5. Default values
          • 36.1.2.6. Generating help
            • 36.1.2.6.1. Grouping Options
          • 36.1.2.7. Printing a version string
          • 36.1.2.8. How optparse handles errors
          • 36.1.2.9. Putting it all together
        • 36.1.3. Reference Guide
          • 36.1.3.1. Creating the parser
          • 36.1.3.2. Populating the parser
          • 36.1.3.3. Defining options
          • 36.1.3.4. Option attributes
          • 36.1.3.5. Standard option actions
          • 36.1.3.6. Standard option types
          • 36.1.3.7. Parsing arguments
          • 36.1.3.8. Querying and manipulating your option parser
          • 36.1.3.9. Conflicts between options
          • 36.1.3.10. Cleanup
          • 36.1.3.11. Other methods
        • 36.1.4. Option Callbacks
          • 36.1.4.1. Defining a callback option
          • 36.1.4.2. How callbacks are called
          • 36.1.4.3. Raising errors in a callback
          • 36.1.4.4. Callback example 1: trivial callback
          • 36.1.4.5. Callback example 2: check option order
          • 36.1.4.6. Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
          • 36.1.4.7. Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
          • 36.1.4.8. Callback example 5: fixed arguments
          • 36.1.4.9. Callback example 6: variable arguments
        • 36.1.5. Extending optparse
          • 36.1.5.1. Adding new types
          • 36.1.5.2. Adding new actions
      • 36.2. imp — Access the import internals
        • 36.2.1. Examples
    • 37. Undocumented Modules
      • 37.1. Platform specific modules
  • Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter
    • Recommended third party tools
    • Creating extensions without third party tools
      • 1. Extending Python with C or C++
        • 1.1. A Simple Example
        • 1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
        • 1.3. Back to the Example
        • 1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function
        • 1.5. Compilation and Linkage
        • 1.6. Calling Python Functions from C
        • 1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
        • 1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
        • 1.9. Building Arbitrary Values
        • 1.10. Reference Counts
          • 1.10.1. Reference Counting in Python
          • 1.10.2. Ownership Rules
          • 1.10.3. Thin Ice
          • 1.10.4. NULL Pointers
        • 1.11. Writing Extensions in C++
        • 1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module
      • 2. Defining New Types
        • 2.1. The Basics
          • 2.1.1. Adding data and methods to the Basic example
          • 2.1.2. Providing finer control over data attributes
          • 2.1.3. Supporting cyclic garbage collection
          • 2.1.4. Subclassing other types
        • 2.2. Type Methods
          • 2.2.1. Finalization and De-allocation
          • 2.2.2. Object Presentation
          • 2.2.3. Attribute Management
            • 2.2.3.1. Generic Attribute Management
            • 2.2.3.2. Type-specific Attribute Management
          • 2.2.4. Object Comparison
          • 2.2.5. Abstract Protocol Support
          • 2.2.6. Weak Reference Support
          • 2.2.7. More Suggestions
      • 3. Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils
        • 3.1. Distributing your extension modules
      • 4. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows
        • 4.1. A Cookbook Approach
        • 4.2. Differences Between Unix and Windows
        • 4.3. Using DLLs in Practice
    • Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application
      • 1. Embedding Python in Another Application
        • 1.1. Very High Level Embedding
        • 1.2. Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview
        • 1.3. Pure Embedding
        • 1.4. Extending Embedded Python
        • 1.5. Embedding Python in C++
        • 1.6. Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems
  • Python/C API Reference Manual
    • Introduction
      • Include Files
      • Objects, Types and Reference Counts
        • Reference Counts
          • Reference Count Details
        • Types
      • Exceptions
      • Embedding Python
      • Debugging Builds
    • Stable Application Binary Interface
    • The Very High Level Layer
    • Reference Counting
    • Exception Handling
      • Exception Objects
      • Unicode Exception Objects
      • Recursion Control
      • Standard Exceptions
    • Utilities
      • Operating System Utilities
      • System Functions
      • Process Control
      • Importing Modules
      • Data marshalling support
      • Parsing arguments and building values
        • Parsing arguments
          • Strings and buffers
          • Numbers
          • Other objects
          • API Functions
        • Building values
      • String conversion and formatting
      • Reflection
      • Codec registry and support functions
        • Codec lookup API
        • Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers
    • Abstract Objects Layer
      • Object Protocol
      • Number Protocol
      • Sequence Protocol
      • Mapping Protocol
      • Iterator Protocol
      • Buffer Protocol
        • Buffer structure
        • Buffer request types
          • request-independent fields
          • readonly, format
          • shape, strides, suboffsets
          • contiguity requests
          • compound requests
        • Complex arrays
          • NumPy-style: shape and strides
          • PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets
        • Buffer-related functions
      • Old Buffer Protocol
    • Concrete Objects Layer
      • Fundamental Objects
        • Type Objects
        • The None Object
      • Numeric Objects
        • Integer Objects
        • Boolean Objects
        • Floating Point Objects
        • Complex Number Objects
          • Complex Numbers as C Structures
          • Complex Numbers as Python Objects
      • Sequence Objects
        • Bytes Objects
        • Byte Array Objects
          • Type check macros
          • Direct API functions
          • Macros
        • Unicode Objects and Codecs
          • Unicode Objects
            • Unicode Type
            • Unicode Character Properties
            • Creating and accessing Unicode strings
            • Deprecated Py_UNICODE APIs
            • Locale Encoding
            • File System Encoding
            • wchar_t Support
            • UCS4 Support
          • Built-in Codecs
            • Generic Codecs
            • UTF-8 Codecs
            • UTF-32 Codecs
            • UTF-16 Codecs
            • UTF-7 Codecs
            • Unicode-Escape Codecs
            • Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs
            • Latin-1 Codecs
            • ASCII Codecs
            • Character Map Codecs
            • MBCS codecs for Windows
            • Methods & Slots
          • Methods and Slot Functions
        • Tuple Objects
        • Struct Sequence Objects
        • List Objects
      • Container Objects
        • Dictionary Objects
        • Set Objects
      • Function Objects
        • Function Objects
        • Instance Method Objects
        • Method Objects
        • Cell Objects
        • Code Objects
      • Other Objects
        • File Objects
        • Module Objects
          • Initializing C modules
        • Iterator Objects
        • Descriptor Objects
        • Slice Objects
        • MemoryView objects
        • Weak Reference Objects
        • Capsules
        • Generator Objects
        • DateTime Objects
    • Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
      • Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
      • Process-wide parameters
      • Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
        • Releasing the GIL from extension code
        • Non-Python created threads
        • High-level API
        • Low-level API
      • Sub-interpreter support
        • Bugs and caveats
      • Asynchronous Notifications
      • Profiling and Tracing
      • Advanced Debugger Support
    • Memory Management
      • Overview
      • Raw Memory Interface
      • Memory Interface
      • Customize Memory Allocators
      • Customize PyObject Arena Allocator
      • Examples
    • Object Implementation Support
      • Allocating Objects on the Heap
      • Common Object Structures
      • Type Objects
      • Number Object Structures
      • Mapping Object Structures
      • Sequence Object Structures
      • Buffer Object Structures
      • Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection
    • API and ABI Versioning
  • Distributing Python Modules
    • Key terms
    • Open source licensing and collaboration
    • Installing the tools
    • Reading the guide
    • How do I...?
      • ... choose a name for my project?
      • ... create and distribute binary extensions?
  • Installing Python Modules
    • Key terms
    • Basic usage
    • How do I ...?
      • ... install pip in versions of Python prior to Python 3.4?
      • ... install packages just for the current user?
      • ... install scientific Python packages?
      • ... work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?
    • Common installation issues
      • Installing into the system Python on Linux
      • Installing binary extensions
  • Python HOWTOs
    • Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
      • The Short Explanation
      • Details
        • Drop support for Python 2.6 and older
        • Make sure you specify the proper version support in your setup.py file
        • Have good test coverage
        • Learn the differences between Python 2 & 3
        • Update your code
          • Division
          • Text versus binary data
        • Prevent compatibility regressions
        • Check which dependencies block your transition
        • Update your setup.py file to denote Python 3 compatibility
        • Use continuous integration to stay compatible
      • Dropping Python 2 support completely
    • Porting Extension Modules to Python 3
      • Conditional compilation
      • Changes to Object APIs
        • str/unicode Unification
        • long/int Unification
      • Module initialization and state
      • CObject replaced with Capsule
      • Other options
    • Curses Programming with Python
      • What is curses?
        • The Python curses module
      • Starting and ending a curses application
      • Windows and Pads
      • Displaying Text
        • Attributes and Color
      • User Input
      • For More Information
    • Descriptor HowTo Guide
      • Abstract
      • Definition and Introduction
      • Descriptor Protocol
      • Invoking Descriptors
      • Descriptor Example
      • Properties
      • Functions and Methods
      • Static Methods and Class Methods
    • Functional Programming HOWTO
      • Introduction
        • Formal provability
        • Modularity
        • Ease of debugging and testing
        • Composability
      • Iterators
        • Data Types That Support Iterators
      • Generator expressions and list comprehensions
      • Generators
        • Passing values into a generator
      • Built-in functions
      • The itertools module
        • Creating new iterators
        • Calling functions on elements
        • Selecting elements
        • Combinatoric functions
        • Grouping elements
      • The functools module
        • The operator module
      • Small functions and the lambda expression
      • Revision History and Acknowledgements
      • References
        • General
        • Python-specific
        • Python documentation
    • Logging HOWTO
      • Basic Logging Tutorial
        • When to use logging
        • A simple example
        • Logging to a file
        • Logging from multiple modules
        • Logging variable data
        • Changing the format of displayed messages
        • Displaying the date/time in messages
        • Next Steps
      • Advanced Logging Tutorial
        • Logging Flow
        • Loggers
        • Handlers
        • Formatters
        • Configuring Logging
        • What happens if no configuration is provided
        • Configuring Logging for a Library
      • Logging Levels
        • Custom Levels
      • Useful Handlers
      • Exceptions raised during logging
      • Using arbitrary objects as messages
      • Optimization
    • Logging Cookbook
      • Using logging in multiple modules
      • Multiple handlers and formatters
      • Logging to multiple destinations
      • Configuration server example
      • Dealing with handlers that block
      • Sending and receiving logging events across a network
      • Adding contextual information to your logging output
        • Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information
          • Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information
        • Using Filters to impart contextual information
      • Logging to a single file from multiple processes
      • Using file rotation
      • Use of alternative formatting styles
      • Customizing LogRecord
      • Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
      • Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
      • An example dictionary-based configuration
      • Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
      • A more elaborate multiprocessing example
      • Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
      • Implementing structured logging
      • Customizing handlers with dictConfig()
      • Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
        • Using LogRecord factories
        • Using custom message objects
      • Configuring filters with dictConfig()
      • Customized exception formatting
      • Speaking logging messages
      • Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
      • Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
    • Regular Expression HOWTO
      • Introduction
      • Simple Patterns
        • Matching Characters
        • Repeating Things
      • Using Regular Expressions
        • Compiling Regular Expressions
        • The Backslash Plague
        • Performing Matches
        • Module-Level Functions
        • Compilation Flags
      • You are visitor 01402503 — GeezerVison does not store the pages you look up.
        Best viewed with Netscape Navigator 4.7 or Internet Explorer 6 at 800×600. No cookies required.