Gdańsk is one of the most visited cities in Poland, having received 4.5 million tourists in 2024,[17] especially from Scandinavia and Germany.[18] The city hosts St. Dominic's Fair, which dates back to 1260,[19] and is regarded as one of the biggest trade and cultural events in Europe.[20] In a 2019 quality of life poll, Gdańsk ranked highest among Polish cities.[21][22][23] Its historic city centre has been listed as one of Poland's national monuments.[24] In 2025, Gdańsk became a UNESCOCity of Literature.[25]
Names
Etymology
The name of the city was most likely derived from Gdania, a river presently known as Motława on which the city is situated.[26] Other linguists also argue that the name stems from the Proto-Slavicadjective/prefixgъd-, which meant 'wet' or 'moist' with the addition of the morphemeń/ni and the suffix-sk.[27]
History
A manuscript fragment featuring gyddanyzc
The name of the settlement was recorded after St. Adalbert's death in 997 CE, in his first biography, as urbs Gyddanyzc and it was later written as Kdanzk in 1148, Gdanzc in 1188, Danceke[28] in 1228, Gdańsk in 1236,[d]Danzc in 1263, Danczk in 1311,[e]Danczik in 1399,[f]Danczig in 1414, and Gdąnsk in 1656.[29]
In Polish documents, the form Gdańsk was always used. In German-language documents, multiple variants of the name were recorded over time.[30] The cluster "gd" became "d" (Danzc from 1263),[31] the combination "ns" became "nts" (Danczk from 1311),[31] and finally an epenthetical "i" broke up the final cluster (Danczik from 1399).[31]
In Polish, the modern name of the city is pronounced [ɡdaj̃sk]ⓘ. In English (where the diacritic over the "n" is frequently omitted) the usual pronunciation is /ɡəˈdænsk/ or /ɡəˈdɑːnsk/. The German name, Danzig, is usually pronounced [ˈdantsɪç]ⓘ, or alternatively [ˈdantsɪk]ⓘ in more Southern German-speaking areas. The city's Latin name may be given as either Gedania, Gedanum, or Dantiscum.[32]
Ceremonial names
In the Kashubian language, the city is called Gduńsk.[9] On special occasions, the city is also referred to as "The Royal Polish City of Gdańsk" (Polish: Królewskie Polskie Miasto Gdańsk; Latin: Regia Civitas Polonica Gedanensis; Kashubian: Królewsczi Pòlsczi Gard Gduńsk).[33][34][35] Although some Kashubians may also use the name "Our Capital City Gduńsk" (Nasz Stoleczny Gard Gduńsk) or "Our [regional] Capital City Gduńsk" (Stoleczny Kaszëbsczi Gard Gduńsk), the cultural and historical connections between the city and the region of Kashubia are debatable and use of such names raises controversy among Kashubians.[36]
The oldest evidence found for the existence of a settlement on the lands of what is now Gdańsk comes from the Bronze Age (which is estimated to be from c. 2500–1700 BC) and the Iron Age (c. 1200–550 BC). Archaeological finds testify to the existence of the Lusatian culture and amber trade along the so-called Amber Road.[15]
Duchy of Poland and Samborid rule
The origins of the settlement that is now known as Gdańsk remain uncertain.[37] Archaeological and environmental studies indicate increasing settlement activity in the area during the 10th century.[38] The earliest written reference to the settlement appears in a biography of Saint Adalbert written before 1000, which records his visit in 997 to a town (Latin: urbs) named Gyddanyzc.[37] Although generally identified with Gdańsk, the precise location of this early settlement has not been securely established.[37]
Archaeological research has identified a 10th-century fortified site at Góra Gradowa (Hagelsberg).[38] A later stronghold was established near the confluence of the Motława and Vistula rivers, probably in the 1050s or 1060s.[38][39] Earlier interpretations attributed this riverside stronghold to Mieszko I and dated its construction to the 980s, but this dating has been superseded by dendrochronological research.[37]
The site was ruled by the Samborides as part of the Duchy of Pomerelia, a fief of the Duchy of Poland since 1119. According to a 1148 papal bull, Gdańsk was part of the Polish diocese of Włocławek.[40] Beginning approximately in 1180, the city’s increasing involvement in Baltic trade attracted numerous German settlers, the majority of whom came from Lübeck.[41] Henceforth, the site consisted of a settlement at the modern Long Market, settlements of craftsmen along the Old Ditch, the old Piast stronghold and the newly established German merchant settlements around St Nicholas' Church.[42]
Excavated cellars of a 13th-century Dominican monastery in Gdańsk
Since 1227, Świętopełk II ruled Pomerelia as an independent duchy and the town subsequently became part of the Duchy of Gdańsk.[43] It was at this time that Gdańsk became an important trading town on the lower Vistula.[44] Between 1242–1248 and 1252–1254, Świętopełk fought against the Teutonic Order, who were supported by Lübeck.[45] These conflicts hindered the transformation of the German colony into an autonomous town at this time.[45] Migration of merchants to the town resumed in 1257.[46] At the latest in 1263, Pomerelian duke Świętopełk II granted city rights under Lübeck law to the emerging market settlement.[47] It was an autonomy charter similar to that of Lübeck, which was also the primary origin of many settlers.[42] In a document of 1271 the Pomerelian duke Mestwin II addressed the Lübeck merchants settled in the city as his loyal citizens from Germany.[48][49]
As Mestwin II was the last male representative of his dynasty, his death in 1294 precipitated a contest for control of the city and its surrounding region, involving the Polish Piast dynasty, the Přemyslid rulers of Bohemia, the German Margraves of Brandenburg, and the Teutonic Order.[50] In 1300, the town had an estimated population of 2,000.[51] While overall the town was not an important trade centre at that time, it had relevance in regional trade.[51]
In 1308, following a rebellion instigated against Bogusza, the governor of Gdańsk who was appointed by the future king of Poland, Władysław I the Elbow-high,[52] the town was taken by Brandenburg.[53] Polish forces, under siege in the stronghold, sought aid from the Teutonic Knights, who freed them and proceeded to seize the town, which had previously acknowledged Brandenburg's authority.[53] Subsequently, the Teutonic Order massacred not only the Brandenburg forces and the Pomeranian knights who supported them, but also the town's inhabitants.[54] Błażej Śliwiński (2008) estimates that the overall number of killed was between 50 and 60 Pomeranian and Brandenburg knights, and 1,000 commoners from of the town's population and the adjacent settlements, which he estimates at the time numbered between 2,000 and 3,000 people.[55] Śliwiński & Możejko (2017) give the estimated number of victims as approximately 1,000.[56] According to Smoliński (2021), the death toll is estimated to lie between 60 and 150.[57] The events were used by the Polish Crown to condemn the Teutonic Order in a subsequent papal lawsuit.[58][59] After the takeover, the Teutonic Knights faced charges that they committed a massacre in a papal bull issued by Clement V.[60]
Gdańsk Crane, the largest medieval port crane, was completed in 1444.
The Teutonic Knights incorporated the town into their monastic state and instructed the remaining burghers to depart.[56] In 1308, they founded Osiek Hakelwerk near the town, initially as a Lechitic fishing settlement.[61] The Order did not rebuild the town until the mid-1320s, when some of its former inhabitants—primarily Lübeckers, who also brought back the pre-1308 town seal—returned, alongside settlers from other German regions.[56] The town saw a rapid rise in population and became almost completely German; it would become primarily known by its German name, Danzig.[62] In 1340, the Teutonic Order constructed a large fortress, the Gdańsk Castle, which became the seat of the knights' Komtur.[63] After a series of Polish–Teutonic Wars, King Casimir of Poland recognized the Teutonic Order’s possession of Danzig and Pomerelia in the Treaty of Kalisz (1343),[64] and the Order acknowledged that it would hold Danzig and Pomerelia as a grant from the Polish Crown. By accepting this grant, the Teutonic Order thus recognised the previous rights of Polish monarchs to the seized territories, something which they had previously denied, also this allowed for future claims by the Crown for the territories to be returned.[65] The city thrived as a result of increased exports of grain (especially wheat), timber, potash, tar, and other goods of forestry from Prussia and Poland via the Vistula River trading routes. The Order's religious networks helped to develop Danzig's literary culture.[66]
In 1346, Teutonic Order changed the Town Law of the city, which then consisted only of the Rechtstadt, to Kulm law.[67] In 1358, Danzig joined the Hanseatic League, and became an active member in 1361.[68] It maintained relations with the trade centres Bruges, Novgorod, Lisbon, and Seville.[68] Around 1377, the Old Town was equipped with city rights as well.[69] In 1380, the New Town was founded as the third, independent settlement.[61] Urban growth was mainly driven by migration from German-speaking lands.[70] A new war broke out in 1409, culminating in the Battle of Grunwald (1410), and the city came under the control of the Kingdom of Poland. A year later, with the First Peace of Thorn, it returned to the Teutonic Order. In 1440, the city participated in the foundation of the Prussian Confederation, an organisation opposed to the rule of the Teutonic Order.[71] Following a fire in 1442, the Crane Gate, one of the city's present-day landmarks, was constructed in 1444 under the sanction of the Order.[72] In a complaint of 1453, the Prussian Confederation mentioned repeated cases in which the Teutonic Order imprisoned or murdered local patricians and mayors without a court verdict.[73]
Kingdom of Poland
Original charter of 1455 by King Casimir IV granting Danzig the right to independently levy and abolish taxes
In 1454, the Prussian Confederation renounced its obedience to the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order and appealed to King Casimir IV of Poland for the territory’s reintegration into the Kingdom of Poland.[74] This led to the Thirteen Years' War between Poland and the State of the Teutonic Order (1454–1466). The local mayor pledged allegiance to the king during the incorporation in March 1454 in Kraków,[75] and the city again solemnly pledged allegiance to the king in June 1454 in Elbing (Elbląg), recognizing the prior Teutonic annexation and rule as unlawful.[76] The incorporation considerably strengthened Danzig’s position, as the king granted the city extensive privileges on 16 June 1454.[77] In 1455, the king conferred additional rights on the city, including the right to enact its own laws and to impose taxes.[78]
On 15 May 1457, King Casimir IV granted the town the Great Privilege, after he had been invited by the town's council and had already stayed in town for five weeks.[79] With the Great Privilege, the town was granted full autonomy and protection by the king of Poland.[80] The privilege removed tariffs and taxes on trade within Poland, Lithuania, and Ruthenia (present day Belarus and Ukraine), and conferred on the town independent jurisdiction, legislation and administration of its territory, as well as the right to mint its own coin, the Danzig thaler.[79] Furthermore, the privilege united the Old Town and Main Town and legalised the demolition of New Town, which had sided with the Teutonic Order.[79] By 1457, New Town was demolished completely and no buildings remained.[61]
Danzig in the 16th century, published by Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg
Gaining free and privileged access to Polish markets, the seaport prospered while simultaneously trading with the other Hanseatic cities. After the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) between Poland and the Teutonic Order, the warfare ended permanently. The Order recognised Danzig’s incorporation into the Kingdom of Poland and the city became part of the autonomous province of Royal Prussia (which in 1569 became part of the larger Greater Poland Province). The city was visited by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1504 and 1526, and Narratio Prima, the first printed abstract of his heliocentric theory, was published there in 1540.[81] During the Protestant Reformation, most German-speaking inhabitants adopted Lutheranism.[82] Following the Reformation, High German soon prevailed in Danzig, where Low German had long served as the administrative language owing to the city’s Hanseatic ties.[83] In 1566, High German also replaced Low German as the language of the courts.[83] After the Union of Lublin between Poland and Lithuania in 1569, the city continued to enjoy a large degree of internal autonomy (cf. Danzig law).[84] Being the largest and one of the most influential cities of Poland, it enjoyed voting rights during the royal election period in Poland.[85]
Apotheosis of Gdańsk by Isaak van den Blocke. The Vistula-borne trade of goods in Poland was the main source of prosperity during the city's Golden Age.
In the 1560s and 1570s, a large Mennonite community started growing in the city, gaining significant popularity.[86] In the 1575 election to the Polish throne, Danzig supported Maximilian II in his struggle against Stephen Báthory. It was the latter who eventually became monarch, but the city, encouraged by the secret support of Denmark and Emperor Maximilian, shut its gates against Stephen. After the Siege of Danzig, lasting six months, the city's army of 5,000 mercenaries was utterly defeated in a field battle on 16 December 1577. However, since Stephen's armies were unable to take the city by force, a compromise was reached: Stephen Báthory confirmed the city's special status and its Danzig law privileges granted by earlier Polish kings. The city recognised him as ruler of Poland and paid the large sum of 200,000 guldens in gold as an apology.[87]
Beside a majority of German-speakers,[91] whose elites sometimes distinguished their German dialect as Pomerelian,[92] the city was home to a Polish minority.[93] In 1632, the Gdańsk Bible was first published, which was a Polish language translation of holy scriptures that became the Bible of all Evangelical Poles.[94] Polish influence increased slightly with Danzig’s integration into Poland, but the city retained a pronounced German linguistic and cultural character, a circumstance attributable above all to the ongoing influx of predominantly Protestant settlers, primarily of Dutch, Scottish and German origin, who assimilated into the local German culture.[93] The Scots took refuge or migrated to and received citizenship in the city, with first Scots arriving in 1380,[95] and a FrenchHuguenot commune was founded in 1686.[96] Due to the special status of the city and significance within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the city inhabitants largely became bi-cultural sharing both German and Polish culture and were strongly attached to the traditions of the Commonwealth.[97]
An allegorical portrayal of wealth from 1604. The foreground features affluent citizens and the background presents the hyperbolized city with its landmarks, notably the Torture Tower and the Main City Hall.
The city suffered a last great plague and a slow economic decline due to the wars of the 18th century. After peace was restored in 1721, Danzig experienced steady economic recovery. As a stronghold of Stanisław Leszczyński's supporters during the War of the Polish Succession, it was taken by the Russians after the Siege of Danzig in 1734. In the 1740s and 1750s Danzig was restored and the Danzig port was again the most significant grain exporting port in the Baltic region.[98] The Danzig Research Society, which became defunct in 1936, was founded in 1743.[99]
In 1772, the First Partition of Poland took place and Prussia annexed almost all of the former Royal Prussia, which became the Province of West Prussia. However, Danzig remained a part of Poland as an exclave separated from the rest of the country. The Prussian king cut off the city with a military controlled barrier, also blocking shipping links to foreign ports, on the pretence that a cattle plague may otherwise break out.[100] Danzig declined in its economic significance and lost commercial shares to Elbing, which had come under Prussian control in 1772.[101] However, by the end of the 18th century, Danzig was still one of the most economically integrated cities in Poland. It was well-connected and traded actively with German cities, while other Polish cities became less well-integrated towards the end of the century, mostly due to greater risks for long-distance trade, given the number of violent conflicts along the trade routes.[102]
Kingdom of Prussia, Napoleonic Free City and Germany
Danzig was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1793 in the Second Partition of Poland.[103] The population largely opposed the Prussian annexation and wanted the city to remain part of the Kingdom of Poland.[104] The mayor of the city stepped down from his office due to the annexation.[105] The notable city councilor Johann Uphagen also resigned as a sign of protest against the annexation.[106]
Danzig’s integration into the Prussian kingdom soon fostered its economic revival. The city regained its significance as a Baltic port, though trade patterns shifted increasingly towards the British market.[107] It also benefited from its integration into the Prussian customs territory, which had been expanded considerably since the Second Partition of Poland,[107] and new postal links to Berlin, Königsberg, and Warsaw, which facilitated communication.[108]
Beginning in the 1820s, the Wisłoujście Fortress served as a prison, mainly for Polish political prisoners, including resistance members, protesters, insurgents of the November and January uprisings and refugees from the Russian Partition of Poland fleeing conscription into the Russian Army,[110] and insurgents of the November Uprising were also imprisoned in Biskupia Górka (Bischofsberg).[111] From May to June 1832 and in November 1833, more than 1,000 Polish insurgents departed partitioned Poland through the city's port, boarding ships bound for France, the United Kingdom and the United States (see Great Emigration).[112][113] The population in 1843 was 62,000 inhabitants.[114]
An early photograph of Langgasse, present-day Długa Street, 1855
The city's longest serving mayor was Robert von Blumenthal, who held office from 1841, through the revolutions of 1848, until 1863. In the second half of the 19th century, Danzig experienced railway construction, port expansion, and the growth of industries such as shipbuilding, timber processing, and food production.[115] Nevertheless, its industrial development lagged behind that of other major Prussian cities.[115] In 1871, Danzig became the first city in Continental Europe to establish a sewer system with wastewater treatment, resulting in a significant improvement in public health.[116]
With the unification of Germany under Prussian hegemony in 1871, the city became part of the German Empire and remained so until 1919, after Germany's defeat in World War I.[103] Starting from the 1850s, long-established Danzig families often felt marginalized by the new town elite originating from mainland Germany. This situation caused the Polish to allege that the Danzig people were oppressed by German rule and for this reason allegedly failed to articulate their natural desire for strong ties with Poland.[117]
An aerial view of the historic city centre around 1920
When Poland regained its independence after World War I with access to the sea as promised by the Allies on the basis of Woodrow Wilson's "Fourteen Points", the Poles hoped the city's harbour would also become part of Poland.[118] However, in the end – since Germans formed a majority in the city, with Poles being a minority[119] – the city was not placed under Polish sovereignty.
Instead, in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, it became the Free City of Danzig, an independent state under the auspices of the League of Nations with its external affairs largely under Polish control.[120] Poland's rights also included free use of the harbour, a Polish post office, a Polish garrison in Westerplatte district, and a customs union with Poland.[120] The Free City had its own constitution, national anthem, parliament, and government. It issued its own stamps and currency, the latter being called the Danzig gulden.[118]
With the growth of Nazism among Germans, anti-Polish sentiment became far more common among local Germans; public Polish-language schools were heavily restricted,[120] causing its Polish inhabitants to found their own private schools.[121] In the 1930s, the local branch of the Nazi Party under Albert Forster, a Schutzstaffel member, capitalized on the sentiments of the city's German population to win the next elections to the city's legislature, triggering a wave of repression.[121] The Danzig city government implemented various discriminatory policies against Poles, including expelling Polish students from the technical university,[122] forcibly Germanizing dozens of Polish surnames,[122] removing landmarks that reminded of Polish rule such as the Artus Court[123] and Neptune's Fountain from the heritage list, prohibiting employment of Poles by German companies, and banning the use of Polish in public places.[124]
Attacks and discrimination also came from the citizens of Danzig themselves, who often attacked Polish schools and the youth that attended them[121] and were disallowed from entering various businesses owned by Germans.[124] Polish railwaymen were also subjects of beatings.[125] Many ethnic Poles were tracked by the Gestapo and, in Operation Tannenberg, arrested and moved to camps such as Stutthof[126] or executed in the Piaśnica forest.[126]
Nazi Germany officially demanded the return of Danzig to Germany along with a German-controlled highway through the area of the Polish Corridor, pursuing a far more aggressive policy in this matter than it had regarding the Sudetenland with Czechoslovakia in 1938.[127] With Poland's refusal, German–Polish relations deteriorated, ultimately concluding with the beginning of the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939.[128] Some of the earliest combat of World War II occurred in Danzig. At 04:45a.m. on 1 September, the Battle of Westerplatte began with the SMSSchleswig-Holstein firing the war's first shots on a Polish military depot there, whilst a small group of men defended the Polish post office in the city for several hours. The defenders were later executed.[128]
Within one year of a 1937 pogrom, more than half of the city's Jewish community had left,[129] and organized emigration of Jews away from Danzig began after the Kristallnacht riots in 1938.[130] In 1939, regular transports to Mandatory Palestine began. The numbers of the local Jewish community quickly thinned, with only 600 Jews remaining in Danzig by 1941.[129][131][132] Many of the Jews who remained were transported to the small, single-building Danzig Ghetto.[133]
Crowds greet Adolf Hitler as he rides in an open car in Danzig in September 1939.
In line with the decisions made by the Allies under pressure of Stalin at the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the city was annexed by Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the fall of communism in Poland in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In June 1945 around 124,000 Germans remained in the city.[144] Shortly afterward, in July 1945, the Polish authorities began deporting the Germans to Allied-occupied Germany.[145] The city was repopulated by ethnic Poles; up to 18% of them had been deported by the Soviets in two major waves from pre-war eastern Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union.[146]
Parts of the historic old city of Gdańsk, which had suffered large-scale destruction during the war, were rebuilt during the 1950s and 1960s. The reconstruction sought to dilute the "German character" of the city, and set it back to how it supposedly looked like before the annexation to Prussia in 1793.[147][148][149] Nineteenth-century transformations were ignored as "ideologically malignant" by post-war administrations, or regarded as "Prussian barbarism" worthy of demolition,[150][151] while Flemish/Dutch, Italian and French influences were emphasized in order to "neutralize" the German influence on the appearance of the city.[152]
Boosted by heavy investment in the development of its port and shipyards fuelled by Soviet ambitions in the Baltic region, Gdańsk became the major shipping and industrial centre of the People's Republic of Poland. In December 1970, Gdańsk was the location of anti-regime demonstrations, which led to the downfall of Poland's communist leader Władysław Gomułka. During the demonstrations in Gdańsk and Gdynia, military and police forces opened fire on the demonstrators, causing several dozen deaths. Ten years later, in August 1980, Gdańsk Shipyard was the birthplace of the Solidarity trade union and political movement.[153]
In September 1981, to deter Solidarity, Soviet Union launched Exercise Zapad-81, the largest military exercise in history, during which amphibious landings were conducted near Gdańsk. Around the same time, Solidarity's first national congress was hosted in the Hala Olivia, located in Gdańsk. Its opposition to the Communist regime led to the end of communist rule in 1989, and sparked a series of protests that overthrew the communist regimes of the former Eastern Bloc.[154]
In January 2019, the Mayor of Gdańsk, Paweł Adamowicz, was assassinated by a man who had just been released from prison for violent crimes. After stabbing the mayor in the abdomen near the heart, the man claimed that the mayor's political party had been responsible for imprisoning him. Though Adamowicz underwent a multi-hour surgery, he died the next day.[160][161]
In October 2019, the city of Gdańsk was awarded the Princess of Asturias Award in the Concord category as a recognition of the fact that "the past and present in Gdańsk are sensitive to solidarity, the defense of freedom and human rights, as well as to the preservation of peace".[162] In a 2023 Report on the Quality of Life in European Cities compiled by the European Commission, Gdańsk was named as the fourth best city to live in Europe alongside Leipzig, Stockholm and Geneva.[163]
Geography
Gdańsk is divided into two main parts, known as the Górny Taras and Dolny Taras in Polish; the low-lying Dolny Taras (Lower Terrace) is found on the Baltic coast, covering parts of the Vistula Fens, whereas the Górny Taras (Upper Terrace) is characterised by uneven highlands and is part of the Kashubian Lake District. The city is also found at the mouth of the Motława and Vistula rivers, which has significantly influenced its geography and shaped its economy.[164]
Gdańsk has a climate with both oceanic and continental influences. According to some categorisations, it has an oceanic climate (Cfb), while others classify it as belonging to the humid continental climate (Dfb).[165] It actually depends on whether the mean reference temperature for the coldest winter month is set at −3°C (27°F) or 0°C (32°F). Gdańsk's dry winters and the precipitation maximum in summer are indicators of continentality. However seasonal extremes are less pronounced than those in inland Poland.[166]
The city has moderately cold and cloudy winters, with mean temperatures in January and February near or below 0°C (32°F) and mild summers with frequent showers and thunderstorms. Average temperatures range from −1.0 to 17.2°C (30 to 63°F) and average monthly rainfall varies 17.9 to 66.7mm (1 to 3in) per month with a rather low annual total of 507.3mm (20in). In general, the weather is damp, variable, and mild.[166]
The seasons are clearly differentiated. Spring starts in March and is initially cold and windy, later becoming pleasantly warm and often increasingly sunny. Summer, which begins in June, is predominantly warm but hot at times with temperature reaching as high as 30 to 35°C (86 to 95°F) at least couple times a year with plenty of sunshine interspersed with heavy rain. Gdańsk averages 1,700 hours of sunshine per year. July and August are the warmest months. Autumn comes in September and is at first warm and usually sunny, turning cold, damp, and foggy in November. Winter lasts from December to March and includes periods of snow. January and February are the coldest months with the temperature sometimes dropping as low as −15°C (5°F).[166]
The industrial sections of the city are dominated by shipbuilding, petrochemical, and chemical industries, as well as food processing. The share of high-tech sectors such as electronics, telecommunications, IT engineering, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals is on the rise. Amber processing is also an important part of the local economy, as the majority of the world's amber deposits lie along the Baltic coast.[178]
Major companies based in Gdańsk include the multinational clothing company LPP,[179] the energy company Energa,[180] the shipyard Remontowa,[181] the Gdańsk Shipyard, and Ziaja.[182] The city also served as a major base for Grupa Lotos, with the Gdańsk Refinery being the second-largest in Poland, with a capacity of 33,000m3/d (210,000bbl/d).[183][178] Gdańsk also hosts the biennial BALTEXPO International Maritime Fair and Conference, the largest fair dedicated to the maritime industry in Poland.[184][185]
The largest shopping centre located in the city is Forum Gdańsk,[186] which covers a large plot in the city centre.[187] In 2021, the registered unemployment rate in the city was estimated at 3.6%.[188]
Main sights
View of Gdańsk's Main Town from the Motława River (2012)
The city has many reconstructed buildings originally built in the time of the Hanseatic League, most of which are located in the Main City[189] and specifically along or near Ulica Długa and Długi Targ, a pedestrian thoroughfare surrounded by reconstructed historical buildings and flanked at both ends by elaborate city gates; this is sometimes referred to as the Royal Route, since it was once the path of processions for visiting Kings of Poland.[190]
The National Museum includes the Department of Historical Art in Stare Przedmieście, the Department of Modern Art and the nearby Department of Ethnography in Oliwa, and the NOMUS modern art gallery and the Gdańsk Gallery of Photography in Stare Miasto. It also has departments in Kościerzyna and Waplewo Wielkie, those being the Museum of the National Anthem and Museum of Noble Tradition respectively.[206]
Between 2011 and 2015, the rail route between Gdańsk, Gdynia, and Warsaw underwent a major upgrade, resulting in improvements in the railway's speed and to critical infrastructure such as signalling systems, as well as the construction of the Pomeranian Metropolitan Railway, a major commuter railway project, which was opened in 2015.[223][224][225]
Gdańsk bus station is the city's principal bus terminal.[226] City buses and trams are operated by ZTM Gdańsk (Zarząd Transportu Miejskiego w Gdańsku).[227] The Port of Gdańsk is a seaport located on the southern coast of Gdańsk Bay, located within the city,[228] and the Obwodnica Trójmiejska and A1 autostrada allow for automotive access to the city.[229] Additionally, Gdańsk is part of the Rail-2-Sea project. This project's objective is to connect the city with the Romanian Black Sea port of Constanța with a 3,663km (2,276mi) long railway line passing through Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania.[230][231]
Contemporary Gdańsk is one of the major centres of economic and administrative life in Poland. It is the seat of a Polish central institution, the Polish Space Agency,[246] several supra-regional branches of further central institutions,[247] as well as the supra-regional (appellate-level) institutions of justice.[248] As the capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship it has been the seat of the Pomeranian Voivodeship Office, the Sejmik, and the Marshal's Office of the Pomeranian Voivodeship and other voivodeship-level institutions.[249]
Legislative power in Gdańsk is vested in a unicameral Gdańsk City Council (Rada Miasta), which comprises 34 members. Council members are elected directly every four years. Like most legislative bodies, the City Council divides itself into committees, which have the oversight of various functions of the city government.[250]
Districts
Gdańsk is divided into 36 districts (dzielnice), most of which are also subdivided into osiedla. A full list can be found at Districts of Gdańsk, but the largest by population include Śródmieście, Przymorze Wielkie, Chełm, Wrzeszcz Dolny, and Wrzeszcz Górny.[251] Śródmieście encompasses most of the city as it was in 1813. The city's boundaries were first expanded beyond the borders of Śródmieście in 1814, and various districts were gradually incorporated into it (with larger expansions including the annexation of Oliwa in 1926 and Suchanino in 1902). Many of the city's current suburban districts, such as Jasień, Ujeścisko-Łostowice, Matarnia, and Osowa, were incorporated into it in a 1973 expansion.[252]
There are four consulates general in Gdańsk – China, Germany, Hungary, Russia, one consulate – Ukraine, and 17 honorary consulates – Austria, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Estonia, Ethiopia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Mexico, Moldova, Netherlands, Peru, Seychelles, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Uruguay.[257]
On 3 March 2022, Gdańsk City Council passed a unanimous resolution to terminate the cooperation with the Russian cities of Kaliningrad and Saint Petersburg as a response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[259][260]
Cooperation with non-sister cities
Gdańsk also cooperates with the following non-sister cities:[258]
Around 1600, the city’s population was composed of over 90% Germans and adherents of Protestantism.[267] Around 1700, more than 80% of the inhabitants were Protestants, followed by Catholics with about 10% and a smaller but significant group of Calvinists, while German remained the dominant language.[268] According to another source, in year 1770, shortly before the Partitions of Poland, only 58% of the inhabitants were Germans, while 42% were all others (including Poles and Kashubians).[269] By 1816, the proportion of Catholics had risen to 23.6%, whereas Protestants accounted for 70% of the population.[270] In 1890, according to Stefan Ramułt there were 92.28% Germans, 0.94% Poles, 4.50% Kashubians, 2.11% Jews and 0.17% others.[271] In the 1920 election, 6.5% of the inhabitants voted for the Polish Party while the 1923 census conducted in the Free City of Danzig indicated that of all inhabitants in the city proper, 95% were German-speaking and 3.5% spoke Polish and Kashubian.[272] In 1929, Poles and Kashubians accounted for 11% of Danzig‘s total population (23,120 people out of 215,464).[272] The end of World War II is a significant break in continuity with regard to the inhabitants of Gdańsk.[273]
German citizens began to flee en masse as the Soviet Red Army advanced, composed of both spontaneous flights driven by rumours of Soviet atrocities, and organised evacuation starting in the summer of 1944 which continued into the spring of 1945.[274] Approximately 1% (100,000) of the German civilian population residing east of the Oder–Neisse line perished in the fighting prior to the surrender in May 1945.[275] German civilians were also sent as "reparations labour" to the Soviet Union.[276][277]
Poles from other parts of Poland replaced the former German-speaking population, with the first settlers arriving in March 1945.[278] On 30 March 1945, the Gdańsk Voivodeship was established as the first administrative Polish unit in the Recovered Territories.[279] As of 1 November 1945, around 93,029 Germans remained within the city limits.[280] Ethnically German population was then expelled to Germany, while these of the locals who declared Polish nationality and were ethnically verified as Poles were permitted to remain; according to the census of 1950 out of 194,633 inhabitants of Gdańsk 12% (23,442) were pre-war autochthons of the Regained Lands, including 22,213 from the city of Gdańsk itself, 828 from neighbouring areas of the Free City and 401 from elsewhere.[281]
The settlers can be grouped according to their background:
Poles incl. Kashubians relocating from nearby villages and small towns[284]
Settlers from central Poland migrating voluntarily[282]
Non-Poles forcibly resettled during Operation Vistula in 1947. Large numbers of Ukrainians were forced to move from south-eastern Poland under a 1947 Polish government operation aimed at dispersing, and therefore assimilating, those Ukrainians who had not been expelled eastward already, throughout the newly acquired territories. Belarusians living around the area around Białystok were also pressured into relocating to the formerly German areas for the same reasons. This scattering of members of non-Polish ethnic groups throughout the country was an attempt by the Polish authorities to dissolve the unique ethnic identity of groups like the Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Lemkos, and broke the proximity and communication necessary for strong communities to form.[285]
↑"Główny Urząd Statystyczny"[Central Statistical Office]. Statistics Poland (in Polish). To search: Select "Miejscowości (SIMC)" tab, select "fragment (min. 3 znaki)" (minimum 3 characters), enter town name in the field below, click "WYSZUKAJ" (Search).
↑"Local Data Bank". Statistics Poland. Retrieved 18 July 2022. Data for territorial unit 2261000.
↑Johann Georg Theodor Grässe, Orbis latinus oder Verzeichniss der lateinischen Benennungen der bekanntesten Städte etc., Meere, Seen, Berge und Flüsse in allen Theilen der Erde nebst einem deutsch-lateinischen Register derselben. T. Ein Supplement zu jedem lateinischen und geographischen Wörterbuche. Dresden: G. Schönfeld's Buchhandlung (C. A. Werner), 1861, p. 71, 237.
↑Gdańsk, in: Kazimierz Rymut, Nazwy Miast Polski, Ossolineum, Wrocław 1987
↑Hubert Gurnowicz, Gdańsk, in: Nazwy must Pomorza Gdańskiego, Ossolineum, Wrocław 1978
1234Paszkiewicz, Borys (2020). "Pre-Teutonic Gdańsk and Coin Finds: Numismatics Between History and Archaeology". Wiadomości Numizmatyczne. 64: 1–63. doi:10.24425/wn.2020.136903.
↑"Gdańsk". Encyclopedia Britannica. 9 May 2025. Retrieved 3 September 2025.
↑Śliwiński, Błażej; Możejko, Beata (31 March 2017). "The political history of Gdańsk from the town beginnings to the sixteenth century". In Możejko, Beata (ed.). New Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Poland and Prussia: The Impact of Gdańsk. Taylor & Francis. pp.21–22. ISBN9781351805445.
12Hess, Corina (2007). Danziger Wohnkultur in der frühen Neuzeit. Berlin-Hamburg-Münster: LIT Verlag. p.40. ISBN978-3-8258-8711-7.
↑Śliwiński, Błażej; Możejko, Beata (31 March 2017). "The political history of Gdańsk from the town beginnings to the sixteenth century". In Możejko, Beata (ed.). New Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Poland and Prussia: The Impact of Gdańsk. Taylor & Francis. p.23. ISBN9781351805445.
12Śliwiński, Błażej; Możejko, Beata (31 March 2017). "The political history of Gdańsk from the town beginnings to the sixteenth century". In Możejko, Beata (ed.). New Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Poland and Prussia: The Impact of Gdańsk. Taylor & Francis. p.24. ISBN9781351805445.
↑Zbierski, Andrzej (1978). Struktura zawodowa, spoleczna i etnicza ludnosci. In Historia Gdanska, Vol. 1. Wydawnictwo Morskie. pp.228–9. ISBN978-83-86557-00-4.
↑Harlander, Christa (2004). Stadtanlage und Befestigung von Danzig (zur Zeit des Deutschen Ordens). GRIN Verlag. p.2. ISBN978-3-638-75010-3.
↑Lingenberg, Heinz (1982). Die Anfänge des Klosters Oliva und die Entstehung der deutschen Stadt Danzig: die frühe Geschichte der beiden Gemeinwesen bis 1308/10. Klett-Cotta. p.292. ISBN978-3-129-14900-3.
↑'The Slippery Memory of Men': The Place of Pomerania in the Medieval Kingdom of Poland by Paul Milliman p. 73, 2013
12Hess, Corina (2007). Danziger Wohnkultur in der frühen Neuzeit. Berlin-Hamburg-Münster: LIT Verlag. pp.40–41. ISBN978-3-8258-8711-7.
↑Knoll, Paul W. (1966). "Wladyslaw Lokietek and the Restoration of the Regnum Poloniae". Medievalia et Humanistica vol. 17. pp.51–78, esp. 59, 60.
12Śliwiński, Błażej; Możejko, Beata (31 March 2017). "The political history of Gdańsk from the town beginnings to the sixteenth century". In Możejko, Beata (ed.). New Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Poland and Prussia: The Impact of Gdańsk. Taylor & Francis. p.26. ISBN978-1-351-80544-5.
↑Śliwiński, Błazej; Możejko, Beata (2020). "Exile and Return?: Gdańsk in the Aftermath of the Teutonic Order's Actions in Pomerelia during the First Half of the Fourteenth Century". East Central Europe. 47 (1): 29–38. doi:10.30965/18763308-04701004. They forced their way into the town, and by the light of blazing buildings set about massacring not only those knights who supported the rule of the margraves and the Brandenburgers themselves, but also Gdansk's burghers […].
123Śliwiński, Błażej; Możejko, Beata (31 March 2017). "The political history of Gdańsk from the town beginnings to the sixteenth century". In Możejko, Beata (ed.). New Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Poland and Prussia: The Impact of Gdańsk. Taylor & Francis. p.27. ISBN978-1-351-80544-5.
↑Smoliński, Marek (2021). "The Gdańsk Massacre in the Medieval Historical Narrative". Quaestiones Medii Aevi Novae. 2021: 91–128. Admittedly, historiography has completely rejected the number of 10 thousand victims who "perished by the sword" in Gdansk, as cited in the bull of Pope Clement V of July 19, 1309. […] Thanks to analysis of the testimonies of witnesses in the Polish-Teutonic trials in the 14th-15th centuries, the number of deaths is now estimated at between 60 and 150.
↑Nieß, Ulrich (1992). Hochmeister Karl von Trier (1311–1324). Stationen einer Karriere im Deutschen Orden. Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte des Deutschen Ordens. Vol.47. p.74.
123Hess, Corina (2007). Danziger Wohnkultur in der frühen Neuzeit. Berlin-Hamburg-Münster: LIT Verlag. p.41. ISBN978-3-8258-8711-7.
↑Loew, Peter Oliver (2024). Gdańsk: Portrait of a City. Oxford University Press. pp.24–44. ISBN978-0-19-760386-4. Retrieved 4 October 2024. As the Teutonic Order rebuilt the city following the "Gdańsk Bloodbath", the population increased rapidly and became almost entirely German. This would remain so for over seven centuries, during which the city would be known primarily by its German name of Danzig.
↑Hess, Corina (2007). Danziger Wohnkultur in der frühen Neuzeit. Berlin-Hamburg-Münster: LIT Verlag. pp.41–42. ISBN978-3-8258-8711-7.
↑Knoll, Paul W. (2021). "The Last Piasts: Legitimating Royal Rule in Fourteenth Century Poland". In Zupka, Dušan; Vercamer, Grischa (eds.). Rulership in Medieval East Central Europe: Power, Ritual and Legitimacy in Bohemia, Hungary and Poland. Netherlands: Brill. p.251. ISBN9789004500112.
↑Frankot, Edda (2012). 'Of Laws of Ships and Shipmen': Medieval Maritime Law and its Practice in Urban Northern Europe. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p.100. ISBN978-0-7486-4624-1.
12Hess, Corina (2007). Danziger Wohnkultur in der frühen Neuzeit. Berlin-Hamburg-Münster: LIT Verlag. p.42. ISBN978-3-8258-8711-7.
↑Loew, Peter O. (2011). Danzig: Biographie einer Stadt. München: C.H. Beck. p.43. ISBN978-3-406-60587-1.
↑Śliwiński, Błażej; Możejko, Beata (31 March 2017). "The political history of Gdańsk from the town beginnings to the sixteenth century". In Możejko, Beata (ed.). New Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Poland and Prussia: The Impact of Gdańsk. Taylor & Francis. p.28. ISBN978-1-351-80544-5. This number grew principally through the influx of newcomers. […] In total 3-3.4 per cent of people came from territories where Slavic languages were spoken (most of them from the Kingdom of Poland), while 96 per cent were from German-speaking areas.
↑Grulkowski, Marcin (2023). Michaela Antonín Malaníková; Beata Możejko; Martin Nodl (eds.). The 1442 Fire of the Crane in the Main Town of Gdańsk: Legal and Financial Issues Connected with Maintaining Fortifications in the Great Prussian City in the Late Middle Ages. Pre-modern Towns at the Times of Catastrophes: East-Central Europe in a Comparative Perspective. Taylor & Francis. pp.77–78.
↑Górski, Karol (1949). Związek Pruski i poddanie się Prus Polsce: zbiór tekstów źródłowych (in Polish). Poznań: Instytut Zachodni. pp.16, 18.
↑Loew, Peter Oliver (2024). Gdańsk: Portrait of a City. New York: Oxford University Press. p.47. ISBN9780197603864.
↑Możejko, Beata (2016). "Financial Obligations of the City of Gdańsk to King Casimir IV Jagiellon and His Successors in the Light of the 1468–1516 Ledger Book". In Roman Zaoral (ed.). Money and Finance in Central Europe During the Later Middle Ages. United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. p.181.
123Hess, Corina (2007). Danziger Wohnkultur in der frühen Neuzeit. Berlin-Hamburg-Münster: LIT Verlag. p.45. ISBN978-3-8258-8711-7.
↑Hess, Corina (2007). Danziger Wohnkultur in der frühen Neuzeit. Berlin-Hamburg-Münster: LIT Verlag. p.45. ISBN978-3-8258-8711-7.: "Geben wir und verlehen unnsir Stadt Danczk das sie zcu ewigen geczeiten nymands for eynem herrn halden noc gehorsam zcu weszen seyn sullen in weltlichen sachen."
↑"Gdańsk". Szlak Kopernikowski (in Polish). Retrieved 11 January 2024.
↑Tighe, Carl (1990). Gdansk: National Identity in the Polish-German Borderlands. United Kingdom: Pluto Press. p.56. ISBN9780745304748.
↑Zamoyski, Adam (2015). Poland. A History. William Collins. pp.26, 92. ISBN978-0007556212.
↑Bömelburg, Hans-Jürgen, Zwischen polnischer Ständegesellschaft und preußischem Obrigkeitsstaat: vom Königlichen Preußen zu Westpreußen (1756–1806), München: Oldenbourg, 1995, (Schriften des Bundesinstituts für Ostdeutsche Kultur und Geschichte (Oldenburg); 5), zugl.: Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg-Univ., Diss., 1993, p. 549
12Tighe, Carl (1990). Gdansk: National Identity in the Polish-German Borderlands. United Kingdom: Pluto Press. pp.60–62. ISBN9780745304748.
↑Wijaczka, Jacek (2010). "Szkoci". In Kopczyński, Michał; Tygielski, Wojciech (eds.). Pod wspólnym niebem. Narody dawnej Rzeczypospolitej (in Polish). Warszawa: Muzeum Historii Polski, Bellona. p.201. ISBN978-83-11-11724-2.
↑Muret, Eduard (1885). Geschichte der Französischen Kolonie in Brandenburg-Preußen, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Berliner Gemeinde. Aus Veranlassung der Zweihundertjährigen Jubelfeier am 29. Oktober 1885. Berlin: H. Scherer. p.211.
↑Kubus, Radosław (2019). "Ucieczki z twierdzy Wisłoujście w I połowie XIX wieku". Vade Nobiscum (in Polish). XX. Łódź: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego: 154–155.
↑Kasparek, Norbert (2014). "Żołnierze polscy w Prusach po upadku powstania listopadowego. Powroty do kraju i wyjazdy na emigrację". In Katafiasz, Tomasz (ed.). Na tułaczym szlaku... Powstańcy Listopadowi na Pomorzu (in Polish). Koszalin: Muzeum w Koszalinie, Archiwum Państwowe w Koszalinie. p.177.
↑"Rozmaite wiadomości". Gazeta Wielkiego Xięstwa Poznańskiego (in Polish). No.155. Poznań. 6 July 1832. p.852.
↑The National Cyclopaedia od Useful Knowledge (Firsted.). London: Charles Knight. 1848. p.237, Vol V.
12Loew, Peter Oliver (2011). Danzig: Biographie einer Stadt (in German). München: Beck. pp.163–165. ISBN9783406605871.
↑Loew, Peter Oliver (2011). Danzig: Biographie einer Stadt (in German). München: Beck. p.167. ISBN9783406605871.
↑Loew, Peter Oliver (207). "Danzig oder das verlorene Paradies. Vom Herausgeben und vom Hineinerzählen". Germanoslavica Zeitschrift für germano-slawische Studien. 28 (1–2). Hildesheim: Verlag Georg Olms: 109–122.
↑Ergebnisse der Volks- und Berufszählung vom 1. November 1923 in der Freien Stadt Danzig (in German). Verlag des Statistischen Landesamtes der Freien Stadt Danzig. 1926.
123Wardzyńska, Maria (2009). Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion (in Polish). Warszawa: IPN. p.37.
↑Hoffmann, Peter (1996). History of the German Resistance, 1933-1945. McGill-Queen's University Press. p.37. ISBN978-0773515314. Fest, Joachim (2002). Hitler. Mariner Books. p.586. ISBN978-0156027540. Hargreaves, Richard (2010). Blitzkrieg Unleashed: The German Invasion of Poland, 1939. Stackpole Books. p.84. ISBN978-0811707244. Kirchen, Martin (1975). A Military History of Germany: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present Day. University of Indiana. p.305. ISBN978-0253338389.
12Drzycimski, Andrzej (2014). Reduta Westerplatte. Oficyna Gdańska. ISBN978-8364180187.
12"Gdansk". Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2017.
↑"Zigeunerlager Danzig". Bundesarchiv.de (in German). Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
↑Niklas, Tomasz (23 August 2023). "Polscy jeńcy w Stalagu XX B Marienburg". In Grudziecka, Beata (ed.). Stalag XX B: historia nieopowiedziana (in Polish). Malbork: Muzeum Miasta Malborka. p.29. ISBN978-83-950992-2-9.
↑Gliński, Mirosław. "Podobozy i większe komanda zewnętrzne obozu Stutthof (1939–1945)". Stutthof. Zeszyty Muzeum (in Polish). 3: 165, 167–168, 175–176, 179. ISSN0137-5377.
↑Voellner, Heinz (31 August 2020). "Bitwa o Gdańsk 1945". wiekdwudziesty.pl. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
12Grzegorz Baziur, OBEP IPNKraków (2002). "Armia Czerwona na Pomorzu Gdańskim 1945–1947 (Red Army in Gdańsk Pomerania 1945–1947)". Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej (Institute of National Remembrance Bulletin) (in Polish). 7. IPN: 35–38.
↑Biskupski, Mieczysław B. The History of Poland. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, p. 97.
↑Tighe, Carl. Gdańsk: National Identity in the Polish-German Borderlands. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p.199.
↑"Średnia dobowa temperatura powietrza". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 3 December 2021. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
↑"Średnia minimalna temperatura powietrza". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
↑"Średnia maksymalna temperatura powietrza". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
↑"Miesięczna suma opadu". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 9 January 2022. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
↑"Liczba dni z opadem >= 0,1 mm". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
↑"Średnia grubość pokrywy śnieżnej". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
↑"Liczba dni z pokrywą śnieżna > 0 cm". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
↑"Średnia suma usłonecznienia (h)". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
↑Loew, Peter Oliver (2024). Gdańsk: Portrait of a City. New York: Oxford University Press. p.136. ISBN9780197603864.
↑Ramułt, Stefan (1899). Statystyka Ludności Kaszubskiej[Statistics of the Kashubian Population] (in Polish). Kraków: Akademia Umiejętności. p.121.
12Kijeński, Tadeusz (1929). Ilu jest Polaków na terenie Wolnego Miasta Gdańska[How many Poles are there in the Free City of Gdansk](PDF) (in Polish). Gdańsk: Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Nauki i Sztuki w Gdańsku. pp.4–10. Archived(PDF) from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 6 July 2025.
↑Arie Marcelo Kacowicz, Pawel Lutomski, Population resettlement in international conflicts: a comparative study, Lexington Books, 2007, pp. 100, 101 ISBN0-7391-1607-XArchived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine
↑Spieler, Silke. ed. Vertreibung und Vertreibungsverbrechen 1945–1948. Bericht des Bundesarchivs vom 28. Mai 1974. Archivalien und ausgewählte Erlebnisberichte. Bonn: Kulturstiftung der deutschen Vertriebenen. (1989). ISBN3-88557-067-X. pp. 23–41
↑Pavel Polian-Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR Central European University Press 2003 ISBN963-9241-68-7 pp. 286-293
↑Sylwia Bykowska (2020). The Rehabilitation and Ethnic Vetting of the Polish Population in the Voivodship of Gdańsk after World War II. Peter-Lang-Verlagsgruppe. p.116. ISBN978-3-631-67940-1.
↑Selwyn Ilan Troen, Benjamin Pinkus, Merkaz le-moreshet Ben-Guryon, Organizing Rescue: National Jewish Solidarity in the Modern Period, pp. 283-284, 1992, ISBN0-7146-3413-1, ISBN978-0-7146-3413-5
↑Grzegorz Waligóra; Łukasz Kamiński, eds. (2010). NSZZ Solidarność, 1980-1989: Wokół Solidarności (in Polish). Warszawa (Warsaw): Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni Przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu. p.463. ISBN9788376291765. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2021.
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