• Introduction
• Lexical
• Interpolation Expression Sequence
• Grammar
• Modules
• Declarations
• Types
• Properties
• Attributes
• Pragmas
• Expressions
• Statements
• Arrays
• Associative Arrays
• Structs and Unions
• Classes
• Interfaces
• Enums
• Type Qualifiers
• Functions
• Operator Overloading
• Templates
• Template Mixins
• Contract Programming
• Conditional Compilation
• Traits
• Error Handling
• Unit Tests
• Garbage Collection
• Floating Point
• D x86 Inline Assembler
• Embedded Documentation
• Interfacing to C
• Interfacing to C++
• Interfacing to Objective-C
• Portability Guide
• Named Character Entities
• Memory Safety
• Application Binary Interface
• Vector Extensions
• Better C
• ImportC
• Live Functions
• Windows Programming
• Glossary
• Legacy Code
• Editions

Interfaces

Interface Declarations

An interface describes a list of functions that a class inheriting from the interface must implement.

InterfaceDeclaration:
    interface Identifier ;
    interface Identifier BaseInterfaceListopt AggregateBody
    InterfaceTemplateDeclaration

BaseInterfaceList:
    : Interfaces

A class that inherits from an interface can be implicitly converted to that interface type.

Interfaces cannot derive from classes; only from other interfaces. An interface instance implicitly converts to any inherited interfaces. A class cannot derive from an interface multiple times.

interface I
{
    void foo();
}

class A : I, I  // error, duplicate interface
{
}

An instance of an interface cannot be created directly:

interface I
{
    void foo();
}

...

I iface = new I();  // error, cannot create instance of interface

An interface instance can be cast to Object, or dynamically cast to another class type.

Interface Method Bodies

Virtual interface member functions do not have implementations. Interfaces can implement static or final functions.

interface I
{
    void bar() { }  // error, implementation not allowed
    static void foo() { } // ok
    final void abc() { } // ok
}

Interfaces can have function templates in the members. All instantiated functions are implicitly final.

interface I
{
    void foo(T)() { }  // ok, it's implicitly final
}

Classes that inherit from an interface may not override final or static interface member functions.

interface I
{
    void bar();
    static void foo() { }
    final void abc() { }
}

class C : I
{
    void bar() { } // ok
    void foo() { } // error, cannot override static I.foo()
    void abc() { } // error, cannot override final I.abc()
}

Implementing Interfaces

All virtual interface functions must be defined in a class that inherits from that interface:

interface I
{
    void foo();
}

class A : I
{
    void foo() { }  // ok, provides implementation
}

class B : I
{
    int foo() { }   // error, no `void foo()` implementation
}

Interfaces can be inherited from a base class, and interface functions overridden:

interface I
{
    int foo();
}

class A : I
{
    int foo() { return 1; }
}

class B : A
{
    override int foo() { return 2; }
}

B b = new B();
assert(b.foo() == 2);

I i = b;    // ok since B inherits A's I implementation
assert(i.foo() == 2);

Reimplementing Interfaces

Interfaces can be reimplemented in derived classes:

interface I
{
    int foo();
}

class A : I
{
    int foo() { return 1; }
}

class B : A, I // reimplement I
{
    override int foo() { return 2; }
}

B b = new B();
assert(b.foo() == 2);
I i = b;
assert(i.foo() == 2);

A a = b;
I i2 = a;
assert(i2.foo() == 2); // i2 has A's virtual pointer for foo which points to B.foo

A reimplemented interface must implement all the interface functions, it does not inherit them from a super class:

interface I
{
    int foo();
}

class A : I
{
    int foo() { return 1; }
}

class B : A, I
{
}       // error, no foo() for interface I

Interface Method Contracts

Interface member functions can have contracts even though there is no body for the function. The contracts are inherited by any class member function that implements that interface member function.

interface I
{
    int foo(int i)
    in { assert(i > 7); }
    out (result) { assert(result & 1); }

    void bar();
}

Const and Immutable Interfaces

If an interface has const or immutable storage class, then all members of the interface are const or immutable. This storage class is not inherited.

COM Interfaces

A variant on interfaces is the COM interface. A COM interface is designed to map directly onto a Windows COM object. Any COM object can be represented by a COM interface, and any D object with a COM interface can be used by external COM clients.

A COM interface is defined as one that derives from the interface core.sys.win­dows.com.IUnknown. A COM interface differs from a regular D interface in that:

• It derives from the interface core.sys.windows.com.IUnknown.
• It cannot be the argument to destroy.
• References cannot be upcast to the enclosing class object, nor can they be downcast to a derived interface. Implement QueryInterface() for that interface in standard COM fashion to convert to another COM interface.
• Classes derived from COM interfaces are COM classes.
• The default linkage for member functions of COM classes is extern(System).
  Note: To implement or override any base-class methods of D interfaces or classes (ones which do not inherit from IUnknown), explicitly mark them as having the extern(D) linkage.

  import core.sys.windows.windows;
  import core.sys.windows.com;
  
  interface IText
  {
      void write();
  }
  
  abstract class Printer : IText
  {
      void print() { }
  }
  
  class C : Printer, IUnknown
  {
      // Implements the IText `write` class method.
      extern(D) void write() { }
  
      // Overrides the Printer `print` class method.
      extern(D) override void print() { }
  
      // Overrides the Object base class `toString` method.
      extern(D) override string toString() { return "Class C"; }
  
      // Methods of class implementing the IUnknown interface have
      // the extern(System) calling convention by default.
      HRESULT QueryInterface(const(IID)*, void**);
      uint AddRef();
      uint Release();
  }
  

  The same applies to other Object methods such as opCmp, toHash, etc.
• The first member of the COM vtbl[] is not the pointer to the InterfaceInfo, but the first virtual function pointer.

See also Modern COM Programming in D

C++ Interfaces

C++ interfaces are interfaces declared with C++ linkage:

extern (C++) interface Ifoo
{
    void foo();
    void bar();
}

class Ifoo
{
    virtual void foo();
    virtual void bar();
};

Any interface that derives from a C++ interface is also a C++ interface. A C++ interface differs from a D interface in that:

• It cannot be the argument to destroy.
• References cannot be upcast to the enclosing class object, nor can they be downcast to a derived interface.
• The C++ calling convention is the default convention for its member functions, rather than the D calling convention.
• The first member of the vtbl[] is not the pointer to the Interface, but the first virtual function pointer.