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Python Documentation contents¶

  • What’s New in Python
    • What’s New In Python 3.13
      • Summary – Release Highlights
      • New Features
        • A better interactive interpreter
        • Improved error messages
        • Free-threaded CPython
        • An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler
        • Defined mutation semantics for locals()
        • Support for mobile platforms
      • Other Language Changes
      • New Modules
      • Improved Modules
        • argparse
        • array
        • ast
        • asyncio
        • base64
        • compileall
        • concurrent.futures
        • configparser
        • copy
        • ctypes
        • dbm
        • dis
        • doctest
        • email
        • enum
        • fractions
        • glob
        • importlib
        • io
        • ipaddress
        • itertools
        • marshal
        • math
        • mimetypes
        • mmap
        • multiprocessing
        • os
        • os.path
        • pathlib
        • pdb
        • queue
        • random
        • re
        • shutil
        • site
        • sqlite3
        • ssl
        • statistics
        • subprocess
        • sys
        • tempfile
        • time
        • tkinter
        • traceback
        • types
        • typing
        • unicodedata
        • venv
        • warnings
        • xml
        • zipimport
      • Optimizations
      • Removed Modules And APIs
        • PEP 594: Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library
        • 2to3
        • builtins
        • configparser
        • importlib.metadata
        • locale
        • opcode
        • optparse
        • pathlib
        • re
        • tkinter.tix
        • turtle
        • typing
        • unittest
        • urllib
        • webbrowser
      • New Deprecations
        • Pending Removal in Python 3.14
        • Pending Removal in Python 3.15
        • Pending removal in Python 3.16
        • Pending removal in Python 3.17
        • Pending removal in Python 3.18
        • Pending Removal in Future Versions
      • CPython Bytecode Changes
      • C API Changes
        • New Features
        • Changed C APIs
        • Limited C API Changes
        • Removed C APIs
        • Deprecated C APIs
          • Pending Removal in Python 3.14
          • Pending Removal in Python 3.15
          • Pending removal in Python 3.16
          • Pending Removal in Future Versions
      • Build Changes
      • Porting to Python 3.13
        • Changes in the Python API
        • Changes in the C API
      • Regression Test Changes
      • Notable changes in 3.13.1
        • sys
      • Notable changes in 3.13.4
        • os.path
        • tarfile
      • Notable changes in 3.13.18
        • ssl
    • What’s New In Python 3.12
      • Summary – Release highlights
      • New Features
        • PEP 695: Type Parameter Syntax
        • PEP 701: Syntactic formalization of f-strings
        • PEP 684: A Per-Interpreter GIL
        • PEP 669: Low impact monitoring for CPython
        • PEP 688: Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python
        • PEP 709: Comprehension inlining
        • Improved Error Messages
      • New Features Related to Type Hints
        • PEP 692: Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing
        • PEP 698: Override Decorator for Static Typing
      • Other Language Changes
      • New Modules
      • Improved Modules
        • array
        • asyncio
        • calendar
        • csv
        • dis
        • fractions
        • importlib.resources
        • inspect
        • itertools
        • math
        • os
        • os.path
        • pathlib
        • platform
        • pdb
        • random
        • shutil
        • sqlite3
        • statistics
        • sys
        • tempfile
        • threading
        • tkinter
        • tokenize
        • types
        • typing
        • unicodedata
        • unittest
        • uuid
      • Optimizations
      • CPython bytecode changes
      • Demos and Tools
      • Deprecated
        • Pending Removal in Python 3.13
        • Pending Removal in Python 3.14
        • Pending Removal in Python 3.15
        • Pending removal in Python 3.16
        • Pending removal in Python 3.17
        • Pending Removal in Future Versions
      • Removed
        • asynchat and asyncore
        • configparser
        • distutils
        • ensurepip
        • enum
        • ftplib
        • gzip
        • hashlib
        • importlib
        • imp
        • io
        • locale
        • smtpd
        • sqlite3
        • ssl
        • unittest
        • webbrowser
        • xml.etree.ElementTree
        • zipimport
        • Others
      • Porting to Python 3.12
        • Changes in the Python API
      • Build Changes
      • C API Changes
        • New Features
        • Porting to Python 3.12
        • Deprecated
          • Pending Removal in Python 3.14
          • Pending Removal in Python 3.15
          • Pending removal in Python 3.16
          • Pending Removal in Future Versions
        • Removed
    • What’s New In Python 3.11
      • Summary – Release highlights
      • New Features
        • PEP 657: Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks
        • PEP 654: Exception Groups and except*
        • PEP 678: Exceptions can be enriched with notes
        • Windows py.exe launcher improvements
      • New Features Related to Type Hints
        • PEP 646: Variadic generics
        • PEP 655: Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required
        • PEP 673: Self type
        • PEP 675: Arbitrary literal string type
        • PEP 681: Data class transforms
        • PEP 563 may not be the future
      • Other Language Changes
      • Other CPython Implementation Changes
      • New Modules
      • Improved Modules
        • asyncio
        • contextlib
        • dataclasses
        • datetime
        • enum
        • fcntl
        • fractions
        • functools
        • gzip
        • hashlib
        • IDLE and idlelib
        • inspect
        • locale
        • logging
        • math
        • operator
        • os
        • pathlib
        • re
        • shutil
        • socket
        • sqlite3
        • string
        • sys
        • sysconfig
        • tempfile
        • threading
        • time
        • tkinter
        • traceback
        • typing
        • unicodedata
        • unittest
        • venv
        • warnings
        • zipfile
      • Optimizations
      • Faster CPython
        • Faster Startup
          • Frozen imports / Static code objects
        • Faster Runtime
          • Cheaper, lazy Python frames
          • Inlined Python function calls
          • PEP 659: Specializing Adaptive Interpreter
        • Misc
        • FAQ
          • How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?
          • Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?
          • I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?
          • Is there a JIT compiler?
        • About
      • CPython bytecode changes
        • New opcodes
        • Replaced opcodes
        • Changed/removed opcodes
      • Deprecated
        • Language/Builtins
        • Modules
        • Standard Library
      • Pending Removal in Python 3.12
      • Removed
      • Porting to Python 3.11
      • Build Changes
      • C API Changes
        • New Features
        • Porting to Python 3.11
        • Deprecated
        • Pending Removal in Python 3.12
        • Removed
      • Notable changes in 3.11.4
        • tarfile
      • Notable changes in 3.11.5
        • OpenSSL
    • What’s New In Python 3.10
      • Summary – Release highlights
      • New Features
        • Parenthesized context managers
        • Better error messages
          • SyntaxErrors
          • IndentationErrors
          • AttributeErrors
          • NameErrors
        • PEP 626: Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools
        • PEP 634: Structural Pattern Matching
          • Syntax and operations
          • Declarative approach
          • Simple pattern: match to a literal
            • Behavior without the wildcard
          • Patterns with a literal and variable
          • Patterns and classes
            • Patterns with positional parameters
          • Nested patterns
          • Complex patterns and the wildcard
          • Guard
          • Other Key Features
        • Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option
      • New Features Related to Type Hints
        • PEP 604: New Type Union Operator
        • PEP 612: Parameter Specification Variables
        • PEP 613: TypeAlias
        • PEP 647: User-Defined Type Guards
      • Other Language Changes
      • New Modules
      • Improved Modules
        • asyncio
        • argparse
        • array
        • asynchat, asyncore, smtpd
        • base64
        • bdb
        • bisect
        • codecs
        • collections.abc
        • contextlib
        • curses
        • dataclasses
          • __slots__
          • Keyword-only fields
        • distutils
        • doctest
        • encodings
        • enum
        • fileinput
        • faulthandler
        • gc
        • glob
        • hashlib
        • hmac
        • IDLE and idlelib
        • importlib.metadata
        • inspect
        • itertools
        • linecache
        • os
        • os.path
        • pathlib
        • platform
        • pprint
        • py_compile
        • pyclbr
        • shelve
        • statistics
        • site
        • socket
        • ssl
        • sqlite3
        • sys
        • _thread
        • threading
        • traceback
        • types
        • typing
        • unittest
        • urllib.parse
        • xml
        • zipimport
      • Optimizations
      • Deprecated
      • Removed
      • Porting to Python 3.10
        • Changes in the Python syntax
        • Changes in the Python API
        • Changes in the C API
      • CPython bytecode changes
      • Build Changes
      • C API Changes
        • PEP 652: Maintaining the Stable ABI
        • New Features
        • Porting to Python 3.10
        • Deprecated
        • Removed
      • Notable security feature in 3.10.7
      • Notable security feature in 3.10.8
      • Notable changes in 3.10.12
        • tarfile
    • What’s New In Python 3.9
      • Summary – Release highlights
      • You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code
      • New Features
        • Dictionary Merge & Update Operators
        • New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes
        • Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections
        • New Parser
      • Other Language Changes
      • New Modules
        • zoneinfo
        • graphlib
      • Improved Modules
        • ast
        • asyncio
        • compileall
        • concurrent.futures
        • curses
        • datetime
        • distutils
        • fcntl
        • ftplib
        • gc
        • hashlib
        • http
        • IDLE and idlelib
        • imaplib
        • importlib
        • inspect
        • ipaddress
        • math
        • multiprocessing
        • nntplib
        • os
        • pathlib
        • pdb
        • poplib
        • pprint
        • pydoc
        • random
        • signal
        • smtplib
        • socket
        • time
        • sys
        • tracemalloc
        • typing
        • unicodedata
        • venv
        • xml
      • Optimizations
      • Deprecated
      • Removed
      • Porting to Python 3.9
        • Changes in the Python API
        • Changes in the C API
        • CPython bytecode changes
      • Build Changes
      • C API Changes
        • New Features
        • Porting to Python 3.9
        • Removed
      • Notable changes in Python 3.9.1
        • typing
        • macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support
      • Notable changes in Python 3.9.2
        • collections.abc
        • urllib.parse
      • Notable changes in Python 3.9.3
      • Notable changes in Python 3.9.5
        • urllib.parse
      • Notable security feature in 3.9.14
      • Notable changes in 3.9.17
        • tarfile
    • What’s New In Python 3.8
      • Summary – Release highlights
      • New Features
        • Assignment expressions
        • Positional-only parameters
        • Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files
        • Debug build uses the same ABI as release build
        • f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging
        • PEP 578: Python Runtime Audit Hooks
        • PEP 587: Python Initialization Configuration
        • PEP 590: Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython
        • Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers
      • Other Language Changes
      • New Modules
      • Improved Modules
        • ast
        • asyncio
        • builtins
        • collections
        • cProfile
        • csv
        • curses
        • ctypes
        • datetime
        • functools
        • gc
        • gettext
        • gzip
        • IDLE and idlelib
        • inspect
        • io
        • itertools
        • json.tool
        • logging
        • math
        • mmap
        • multiprocessing
        • os
        • os.path
        • pathlib
        • pickle
        • plistlib
        • pprint
        • py_compile
        • shlex
        • shutil
        • socket
        • ssl
        • statistics
        • sys
        • tarfile
        • threading
        • tokenize
        • tkinter
        • time
        • typing
        • unicodedata
        • unittest
        • venv
        • weakref
        • xml
        • xmlrpc
      • Optimizations
      • Build and C API Changes
      • Deprecated
      • API and Feature Removals
      • Porting to Python 3.8
        • Changes in Python behavior
        • Changes in the Python API
        • Changes in the C API
        • CPython bytecode changes
        • Demos and Tools
      • Notable changes in Python 3.8.1
      • Notable changes in Python 3.8.2
      • Notable changes in Python 3.8.3
      • Notable changes in Python 3.8.8
      • Notable changes in Python 3.8.9
      • Notable changes in Python 3.8.10
        • macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support
      • Notable changes in Python 3.8.10
        • urllib.parse
      • Notable changes in Python 3.8.12
        • Changes in the Python API
      • Notable security feature in 3.8.14
      • Notable changes in 3.8.17
        • tarfile
    • What’s New In Python 3.7
      • Summary – Release Highlights
      • New Features
        • PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations
        • PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion
        • PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode
        • PEP 553: Built-in breakpoint()
        • PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage
        • PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes
        • PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution
        • PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in __main__
        • PEP 560: Core Support for typing module and Generic Types
        • PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files
        • PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations
        • Python Development Mode (-X dev)
      • Other Language Changes
      • New Modules
        • contextvars
        • dataclasses
        • importlib.resources
      • Improved Modules
        • argparse
        • asyncio
        • binascii
        • calendar
        • collections
        • compileall
        • concurrent.futures
        • contextlib
        • cProfile
        • crypt
        • datetime
        • dbm
        • decimal
        • dis
        • distutils
        • enum
        • functools
        • gc
        • hmac
        • http.client
        • http.server
        • idlelib and IDLE
        • importlib
        • io
        • ipaddress
        • itertools
        • locale
        • logging
        • math
        • mimetypes
        • msilib
        • multiprocessing
        • os
        • pathlib
        • pdb
        • py_compile
        • pydoc
        • queue
        • re
        • signal
        • socket
        • socketserver
        • sqlite3
        • ssl
        • string
        • subprocess
        • sys
        • time
        • tkinter
        • tracemalloc
        • types
        • unicodedata
        • unittest
        • unittest.mock
        • urllib.parse
        • uu
        • uuid
        • warnings
        • xml
        • xml.etree
        • xmlrpc.server
        • zipapp
        • zipfile
      • C API Changes
      • Build Changes
      • Optimizations
      • Other CPython Implementation Changes
      • Deprecated Python Behavior
      • Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
        • aifc
        • asyncio
        • collections
        • dbm
        • enum
        • gettext
        • importlib
        • locale
        • macpath
        • threading
        • socket
        • ssl
        • sunau
        • sys
        • wave
      • Deprecated functions and types of the C API
      • Platform Support Removals
      • API and Feature Removals
      • Module Removals
      • Windows-only Changes
      • Porting to Python 3.7
        • Changes in Python Behavior
        • Changes in the Python API
        • Changes in the C API
        • CPython bytecode changes
        • Windows-only Changes
        • Other CPython implementation changes
      • Notable changes in Python 3.7.1
      • Notable changes in Python 3.7.2
      • Notable changes in Python 3.7.6
      • Notable changes in Python 3.7.10
      • Notable changes in Python 3.7.11
      • Notable security feature in 3.7.14
    • What’s New In Python 3.6
      • Summary – Release highlights
      • New Features
        • PEP 498: Formatted string literals
        • PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations
        • PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals
        • PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators
        • PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions
        • PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation
        • PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements
        • PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol
        • PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation
        • PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8
        • PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8
        • PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order
        • PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order
        • New dict implementation
        • PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython
        • PYTHONMALLOC environment variable
        • DTrace and SystemTap probing support
      • Other Language Changes
      • New Modules
        • secrets
      • Improved Modules
        • array
        • ast
        • asyncio
        • binascii
        • cmath
        • collections
        • concurrent.futures
        • contextlib
        • datetime
        • decimal
        • distutils
        • email
        • encodings
        • enum
        • faulthandler
        • fileinput
        • hashlib
        • http.client
        • idlelib and IDLE
        • importlib
        • inspect
        • json
        • logging
        • math
        • multiprocessing
        • os
        • pathlib
        • pdb
        • pickle
        • pickletools
        • pydoc
        • random
        • re
        • readline
        • rlcompleter
        • shlex
        • site
        • sqlite3
        • socket
        • socketserver
        • ssl
        • statistics
        • struct
        • subprocess
        • sys
        • telnetlib
        • time
        • timeit
        • tkinter
        • traceback
        • tracemalloc
        • typing
        • unicodedata
        • unittest.mock
        • urllib.request
        • urllib.robotparser
        • venv
        • warnings
        • winreg
        • winsound
        • xmlrpc.client
        • zipfile
        • zlib
      • Optimizations
      • Build and C API Changes
      • Other Improvements
      • Deprecated
        • New Keywords
        • Deprecated Python behavior
        • Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
          • asynchat
          • asyncore
          • dbm
          • distutils
          • grp
          • importlib
          • os
          • re
          • ssl
          • tkinter
          • venv
        • xml
        • Deprecated functions and types of the C API
        • Deprecated Build Options
      • Removed
        • API and Feature Removals
      • Porting to Python 3.6
        • Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior
        • Changes in the Python API
        • Changes in the C API
        • CPython bytecode changes
      • Notable changes in Python 3.6.2
        • New make regen-all build target
        • Removal of make touch build target
      • Notable changes in Python 3.6.4
      • Notable changes in Python 3.6.5
      • Notable changes in Python 3.6.7
      • Notable changes in Python 3.6.10
      • Notable changes in Python 3.6.13
      • Notable changes in Python 3.6.14
    • What’s New In Python 3.5
      • Summary – Release highlights
      • New Features
        • PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax
        • PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication
        • PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations
        • PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray
        • PEP 484 - Type Hints
        • PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator
        • PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR
        • PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators
        • PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality
        • PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments
        • PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files
        • PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization
      • Other Language Changes
      • New Modules
        • typing
        • zipapp
      • Improved Modules
        • argparse
        • asyncio
        • bz2
        • cgi
        • cmath
        • code
        • collections
        • collections.abc
        • compileall
        • concurrent.futures
        • configparser
        • contextlib
        • csv
        • curses
        • dbm
        • difflib
        • distutils
        • doctest
        • email
        • enum
        • faulthandler
        • functools
        • glob
        • gzip
        • heapq
        • http
        • http.client
        • idlelib and IDLE
        • imaplib
        • imghdr
        • importlib
        • inspect
        • io
        • ipaddress
        • json
        • linecache
        • locale
        • logging
        • lzma
        • math
        • multiprocessing
        • operator
        • os
        • pathlib
        • pickle
        • poplib
        • re
        • readline
        • selectors
        • shutil
        • signal
        • smtpd
        • smtplib
        • sndhdr
        • socket
        • ssl
          • Memory BIO Support
          • Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support
          • Other Changes
        • sqlite3
        • subprocess
        • sys
        • sysconfig
        • tarfile
        • threading
        • time
        • timeit
        • tkinter
        • traceback
        • types
        • unicodedata
        • unittest
        • unittest.mock
        • urllib
        • wsgiref
        • xmlrpc
        • xml.sax
        • zipfile
      • Other module-level changes
      • Optimizations
      • Build and C API Changes
      • Deprecated
        • New Keywords
        • Deprecated Python Behavior
        • Unsupported Operating Systems
        • Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
      • Removed
        • API and Feature Removals
      • Porting to Python 3.5
        • Changes in Python behavior
        • Changes in the Python API
        • Changes in the C API
      • Notable changes in Python 3.5.4
        • New make regen-all build target
        • Removal of make touch build target
    • What’s New In Python 3.4
      • Summary – Release Highlights
      • New Features
        • PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations
          • Bootstrapping pip By Default
          • Documentation Changes
        • PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable
        • Improvements to Codec Handling
        • PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System
        • Other Language Changes
      • New Modules
        • asyncio
        • ensurepip
        • enum
        • pathlib
        • selectors
        • statistics
        • tracemalloc
      • Improved Modules
        • abc
        • aifc
        • argparse
        • audioop
        • base64
        • collections
        • colorsys
        • contextlib
        • dbm
        • dis
        • doctest
        • email
        • filecmp
        • functools
        • gc
        • glob
        • hashlib
        • hmac
        • html
        • http
        • idlelib and IDLE
        • importlib
        • inspect
        • ipaddress
        • logging
        • marshal
        • mmap
        • multiprocessing
        • operator
        • os
        • pdb
        • pickle
        • plistlib
        • poplib
        • pprint
        • pty
        • pydoc
        • re
        • resource
        • select
        • shelve
        • shutil
        • smtpd
        • smtplib
        • socket
        • sqlite3
        • ssl
        • stat
        • struct
        • subprocess
        • sunau
        • sys
        • tarfile
        • textwrap
        • threading
        • traceback
        • types
        • urllib
        • unittest
        • venv
        • wave
        • weakref
        • xml.etree
        • zipfile
      • CPython Implementation Changes
        • PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators
        • PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization
        • PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm
        • PEP 436: Argument Clinic
        • Other Build and C API Changes
        • Other Improvements
        • Significant Optimizations
      • Deprecated
        • Deprecations in the Python API
        • Deprecated Features
      • Removed
        • Operating Systems No Longer Supported
        • API and Feature Removals
        • Code Cleanups
      • Porting to Python 3.4
        • Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior
        • Changes in the Python API
        • Changes in the C API
      • Changed in 3.4.3
        • PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
    • What’s New In Python 3.3
      • Summary – Release highlights
      • PEP 405: Virtual Environments
      • PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
      • PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
        • Features
        • API changes
      • PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
        • Functionality
        • Performance and resource usage
      • PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
      • PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
      • PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
      • PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
      • PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
      • PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
      • PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
      • PEP 362: Function Signature Object
      • PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation
        • SimpleNamespace
      • Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
        • New APIs
        • Visible Changes
      • Other Language Changes
      • A Finer-Grained Import Lock
      • Builtin functions and types
      • New Modules
        • faulthandler
        • ipaddress
        • lzma
      • Improved Modules
        • abc
        • array
        • base64
        • binascii
        • bz2
        • codecs
        • collections
        • contextlib
        • crypt
        • curses
        • datetime
        • decimal
          • Features
          • API changes
        • email
          • Policy Framework
          • Provisional Policy with New Header API
          • Other API Changes
        • ftplib
        • functools
        • gc
        • hmac
        • http
        • html
        • imaplib
        • inspect
        • io
        • itertools
        • logging
        • math
        • mmap
        • multiprocessing
        • nntplib
        • os
        • pdb
        • pickle
        • pydoc
        • re
        • sched
        • select
        • shlex
        • shutil
        • signal
        • smtpd
        • smtplib
        • socket
        • socketserver
        • sqlite3
        • ssl
        • stat
        • struct
        • subprocess
        • sys
        • tarfile
        • tempfile
        • textwrap
        • threading
        • time
        • types
        • unittest
        • urllib
        • webbrowser
        • xml.etree.ElementTree
        • zlib
      • Optimizations
      • Build and C API Changes
      • Deprecated
        • Unsupported Operating Systems
        • Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
        • Deprecated functions and types of the C API
        • Deprecated features
      • Porting to Python 3.3
        • Porting Python code
        • Porting C code
        • Building C extensions
        • Command Line Switch Changes
    • What’s New In Python 3.2
      • PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
      • PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
      • PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
      • PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module
      • PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
      • PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
      • PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
      • Other Language Changes
      • New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
        • email
        • elementtree
        • functools
        • itertools
        • collections
        • threading
        • datetime and time
        • math
        • abc
        • io
        • reprlib
        • logging
        • csv
        • contextlib
        • decimal and fractions
        • ftp
        • popen
        • select
        • gzip and zipfile
        • tarfile
        • hashlib
        • ast
        • os
        • shutil
        • sqlite3
        • html
        • socket
        • ssl
        • nntp
        • certificates
        • imaplib
        • http.client
        • unittest
        • random
        • poplib
        • asyncore
        • tempfile
        • inspect
        • pydoc
        • dis
        • dbm
        • ctypes
        • site
        • sysconfig
        • pdb
        • configparser
        • urllib.parse
        • mailbox
        • turtledemo
      • Multi-threading
      • Optimizations
      • Unicode
      • Codecs
      • Documentation
      • IDLE
      • Code Repository
      • Build and C API Changes
      • Porting to Python 3.2
    • What’s New In Python 3.1
      • PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries
      • PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
      • Other Language Changes
      • New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
      • Optimizations
      • IDLE
      • Build and C API Changes
      • Porting to Python 3.1
    • What’s New In Python 3.0
      • Common Stumbling Blocks
        • Print Is A Function
        • Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists
        • Ordering Comparisons
        • Integers
        • Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit
      • Overview Of Syntax Changes
        • New Syntax
        • Changed Syntax
        • Removed Syntax
      • Changes Already Present In Python 2.6
      • Library Changes
      • PEP 3101: A New Approach To String Formatting
      • Changes To Exceptions
      • Miscellaneous Other Changes
        • Operators And Special Methods
        • Builtins
      • Build and C API Changes
      • Performance
      • Porting To Python 3.0
    • What’s New in Python 2.7
      • The Future for Python 2.x
      • Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
      • Python 3.1 Features
      • PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
      • PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
      • PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
      • PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
      • PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
      • PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
      • Other Language Changes
        • Interpreter Changes
        • Optimizations
      • New and Improved Modules
        • New module: importlib
        • New module: sysconfig
        • ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk
        • Updated module: unittest
        • Updated module: ElementTree 1.3
      • Build and C API Changes
        • Capsules
        • Port-Specific Changes: Windows
        • Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
        • Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD
      • Other Changes and Fixes
      • Porting to Python 2.7
      • New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
        • Two new environment variables for debug mode
        • PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches
        • PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7
        • PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7
          • Bootstrapping pip By Default
          • Documentation Changes
        • PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
        • PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7
        • New make regen-all build target
        • Removal of make touch build target
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.6
      • Python 3.0
      • Changes to the Development Process
        • New Issue Tracker: Roundup
        • New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx
      • PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
        • Writing Context Managers
        • The contextlib module
      • PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
      • PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory
      • PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package
      • PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
      • PEP 3105: print As a Function
      • PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
      • PEP 3112: Byte Literals
      • PEP 3116: New I/O Library
      • PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
      • PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
      • PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
      • PEP 3129: Class Decorators
      • PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
        • The fractions Module
      • Other Language Changes
        • Optimizations
        • Interpreter Changes
      • New and Improved Modules
        • The ast module
        • The future_builtins module
        • The json module: JavaScript Object Notation
        • The plistlib module: A Property-List Parser
        • ctypes Enhancements
        • Improved SSL Support
      • Deprecations and Removals
      • Build and C API Changes
        • Port-Specific Changes: Windows
        • Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
        • Port-Specific Changes: IRIX
      • Porting to Python 2.6
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.5
      • PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
      • PEP 309: Partial Function Application
      • PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
      • PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
      • PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
      • PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
      • PEP 342: New Generator Features
      • PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
        • Writing Context Managers
        • The contextlib module
      • PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
      • PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
      • PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method
      • Other Language Changes
        • Interactive Interpreter Changes
        • Optimizations
      • New, Improved, and Removed Modules
        • The ctypes package
        • The ElementTree package
        • The hashlib package
        • The sqlite3 package
        • The wsgiref package
      • Build and C API Changes
        • Port-Specific Changes
      • Porting to Python 2.5
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.4
      • PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
      • PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
      • PEP 289: Generator Expressions
      • PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
      • PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
      • PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
      • PEP 324: New subprocess Module
      • PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
        • Why is Decimal needed?
        • The Decimal type
        • The Context type
      • PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
      • PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
      • Other Language Changes
        • Optimizations
      • New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
        • cookielib
        • doctest
      • Build and C API Changes
        • Port-Specific Changes
      • Porting to Python 2.4
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.3
      • PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
      • PEP 255: Simple Generators
      • PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
      • PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
      • PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
      • PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
      • PEP 279: enumerate()
      • PEP 282: The logging Package
      • PEP 285: A Boolean Type
      • PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
      • PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
      • PEP 302: New Import Hooks
      • PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
      • PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
      • Extended Slices
      • Other Language Changes
        • String Changes
        • Optimizations
      • New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
        • Date/Time Type
        • The optparse Module
      • Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
      • Build and C API Changes
        • Port-Specific Changes
      • Other Changes and Fixes
      • Porting to Python 2.3
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.2
      • Introduction
      • PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
        • Old and New Classes
        • Descriptors
        • Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule
        • Attribute Access
        • Related Links
      • PEP 234: Iterators
      • PEP 255: Simple Generators
      • PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
      • PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
      • Unicode Changes
      • PEP 227: Nested Scopes
      • New and Improved Modules
      • Interpreter Changes and Fixes
      • Other Changes and Fixes
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.1
      • Introduction
      • PEP 227: Nested Scopes
      • PEP 236: __future__ Directives
      • PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
      • PEP 230: Warning Framework
      • PEP 229: New Build System
      • PEP 205: Weak References
      • PEP 232: Function Attributes
      • PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
      • PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
      • PEP 208: New Coercion Model
      • PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
      • New and Improved Modules
      • Other Changes and Fixes
      • Acknowledgements
    • What’s New in Python 2.0
      • Introduction
      • What About Python 1.6?
      • New Development Process
      • Unicode
      • List Comprehensions
      • Augmented Assignment
      • String Methods
      • Garbage Collection of Cycles
      • Other Core Changes
        • Minor Language Changes
        • Changes to Built-in Functions
      • Porting to 2.0
      • Extending/Embedding Changes
      • Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
      • XML Modules
        • SAX2 Support
        • DOM Support
        • Relationship to PyXML
      • Module changes
      • New modules
      • IDLE Improvements
      • Deleted and Deprecated Modules
      • Acknowledgements
    • Changelog
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      • Python 3.7.0 final
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  • The Python Tutorial
    • 1. Whetting Your Appetite
    • 2. Using the Python Interpreter
      • 2.1. Invoking the Interpreter
        • 2.1.1. Argument Passing
        • 2.1.2. Interactive Mode
      • 2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment
        • 2.2.1. Source Code Encoding
    • 3. An Informal Introduction to Python
      • 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator
        • 3.1.1. Numbers
        • 3.1.2. Text
        • 3.1.3. Lists
      • 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming
    • 4. More Control Flow Tools
      • 4.1. if Statements
      • 4.2. for Statements
      • 4.3. The range() Function
      • 4.4. break and continue Statements
      • 4.5. else Clauses on Loops
      • 4.6. pass Statements
      • 4.7. match Statements
      • 4.8. Defining Functions
      • 4.9. More on Defining Functions
        • 4.9.1. Default Argument Values
        • 4.9.2. Keyword Arguments
        • 4.9.3. Special parameters
          • 4.9.3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments
          • 4.9.3.2. Positional-Only Parameters
          • 4.9.3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments
          • 4.9.3.4. Function Examples
          • 4.9.3.5. Recap
        • 4.9.4. Arbitrary Argument Lists
        • 4.9.5. Unpacking Argument Lists
        • 4.9.6. Lambda Expressions
        • 4.9.7. Documentation Strings
        • 4.9.8. Function Annotations
      • 4.10. Intermezzo: Coding Style
    • 5. Data Structures
      • 5.1. More on Lists
        • 5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks
        • 5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues
        • 5.1.3. List Comprehensions
        • 5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions
      • 5.2. The del statement
      • 5.3. Tuples and Sequences
      • 5.4. Sets
      • 5.5. Dictionaries
      • 5.6. Looping Techniques
      • 5.7. More on Conditions
      • 5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types
    • 6. Modules
      • 6.1. More on Modules
        • 6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts
        • 6.1.2. The Module Search Path
        • 6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files
      • 6.2. Standard Modules
      • 6.3. The dir() Function
      • 6.4. Packages
        • 6.4.1. Importing * From a Package
        • 6.4.2. Intra-package References
    • 7. Input and Output
      • 7.1. Fancier Output Formatting
        • 7.1.1. Formatted String Literals
        • 7.1.2. The String format() Method
        • 7.1.3. Manual String Formatting
        • 7.1.4. Old string formatting
      • 7.2. Reading and Writing Files
        • 7.2.1. Methods of File Objects
        • 7.2.2. Saving structured data with json
    • 8. Errors and Exceptions
      • 8.1. Syntax Errors
      • 8.2. Exceptions
      • 8.3. Handling Exceptions
      • 8.4. Raising Exceptions
      • 8.5. Exception Chaining
      • 8.6. User-defined Exceptions
      • 8.7. Defining Clean-up Actions
      • 8.8. Predefined Clean-up Actions
      • 8.9. Raising and Handling Multiple Unrelated Exceptions
      • 8.10. Enriching Exceptions with Notes
    • 9. Classes
      • 9.1. A Word About Names and Objects
      • 9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces
        • 9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example
      • 9.3. A First Look at Classes
        • 9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax
        • 9.3.2. Class Objects
        • 9.3.3. Instance Objects
        • 9.3.4. Method Objects
        • 9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables
      • 9.4. Random Remarks
      • 9.5. Inheritance
        • 9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance
      • 9.6. Private Variables
      • 9.7. Odds and Ends
      • 9.8. Iterators
      • 9.9. Generators
      • 9.10. Generator Expressions
    • 10. Brief tour of the standard library
      • 10.1. Operating system interface
      • 10.2. File wildcards
      • 10.3. Command-line arguments
      • 10.4. Error output redirection and program termination
      • 10.5. String pattern matching
      • 10.6. Mathematics
      • 10.7. Internet access
      • 10.8. Dates and times
      • 10.9. Data compression
      • 10.10. Performance measurement
      • 10.11. Quality control
      • 10.12. Batteries included
    • 11. Brief tour of the standard library — part II
      • 11.1. Output formatting
      • 11.2. Templating
      • 11.3. Working with binary data record layouts
      • 11.4. Multi-threading
      • 11.5. Logging
      • 11.6. Weak references
      • 11.7. Tools for working with lists
      • 11.8. Decimal floating-point arithmetic
    • 12. Virtual Environments and Packages
      • 12.1. Introduction
      • 12.2. Creating Virtual Environments
      • 12.3. Managing Packages with pip
    • 13. What Now?
    • 14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution
      • 14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing
      • 14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter
    • 15. Floating-Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
      • 15.1. Representation Error
    • 16. Appendix
      • 16.1. Interactive Mode
        • 16.1.1. Error Handling
        • 16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts
        • 16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File
        • 16.1.4. The Customization Modules
  • Python Setup and Usage
    • 1. Command line and environment
      • 1.1. Command line
        • 1.1.1. Interface options
        • 1.1.2. Generic options
        • 1.1.3. Miscellaneous options
        • 1.1.4. Controlling color
        • 1.1.5. Options you shouldn’t use
      • 1.2. Environment variables
        • 1.2.1. Debug-mode variables
    • 2. Using Python on Unix platforms
      • 2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python
        • 2.1.1. On Linux
          • 2.1.1.1. Installing IDLE
        • 2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD
      • 2.2. Building Python
      • 2.3. Python-related paths and files
      • 2.4. Miscellaneous
      • 2.5. Custom OpenSSL
    • 3. Configure Python
      • 3.1. Build Requirements
      • 3.2. Generated files
        • 3.2.1. configure script
      • 3.3. Configure Options
        • 3.3.1. General Options
        • 3.3.2. C compiler options
        • 3.3.3. Linker options
        • 3.3.4. Options for third-party dependencies
        • 3.3.5. WebAssembly Options
        • 3.3.6. Install Options
        • 3.3.7. Performance options
        • 3.3.8. Python Debug Build
        • 3.3.9. Debug options
        • 3.3.10. Linker options
        • 3.3.11. Libraries options
        • 3.3.12. Security Options
        • 3.3.13. macOS Options
        • 3.3.14. iOS Options
        • 3.3.15. Cross Compiling Options
      • 3.4. Python Build System
        • 3.4.1. Main files of the build system
        • 3.4.2. Main build steps
        • 3.4.3. Main Makefile targets
          • 3.4.3.1. make
          • 3.4.3.2. make platform
          • 3.4.3.3. make profile-opt
          • 3.4.3.4. make clean
          • 3.4.3.5. make distclean
          • 3.4.3.6. make install
          • 3.4.3.7. make test
          • 3.4.3.8. make buildbottest
          • 3.4.3.9. make regen-all
        • 3.4.4. C extensions
      • 3.5. Compiler and linker flags
        • 3.5.1. Preprocessor flags
        • 3.5.2. Compiler flags
        • 3.5.3. Linker flags
    • 4. Using Python on Windows
      • 4.1. The full installer
        • 4.1.1. Installation steps
        • 4.1.2. Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation
        • 4.1.3. Installing Without UI
        • 4.1.4. Installing Without Downloading
        • 4.1.5. Modifying an install
        • 4.1.6. Installing Free-threaded Binaries
      • 4.2. The Microsoft Store package
        • 4.2.1. Known issues
          • 4.2.1.1. Redirection of local data, registry, and temporary paths
      • 4.3. The nuget.org packages
        • 4.3.1. Free-threaded packages
      • 4.4. The embeddable package
        • 4.4.1. Python Application
        • 4.4.2. Embedding Python
      • 4.5. Alternative bundles
      • 4.6. Configuring Python
        • 4.6.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables
        • 4.6.2. Finding the Python executable
      • 4.7. UTF-8 mode
      • 4.8. Python Launcher for Windows
        • 4.8.1. Getting started
          • 4.8.1.1. From the command-line
          • 4.8.1.2. Virtual environments
          • 4.8.1.3. From a script
          • 4.8.1.4. From file associations
        • 4.8.2. Shebang Lines
        • 4.8.3. Arguments in shebang lines
        • 4.8.4. Customization
          • 4.8.4.1. Customization via INI files
          • 4.8.4.2. Customizing default Python versions
        • 4.8.5. Diagnostics
        • 4.8.6. Dry Run
        • 4.8.7. Install on demand
        • 4.8.8. Return codes
      • 4.9. Finding modules
      • 4.10. Additional modules
        • 4.10.1. PyWin32
        • 4.10.2. cx_Freeze
      • 4.11. Compiling Python on Windows
      • 4.12. Other Platforms
    • 5. Using Python on macOS
      • 5.1. Using Python for macOS from python.org
        • 5.1.1. Installation steps
        • 5.1.2. How to run a Python script
      • 5.2. Alternative Distributions
      • 5.3. Installing Additional Python Packages
      • 5.4. GUI Programming
      • 5.5. Advanced Topics
        • 5.5.1. Installing Free-threaded Binaries
        • 5.5.2. Installing using the command line
        • 5.5.3. Distributing Python Applications
        • 5.5.4. App Store Compliance
      • 5.6. Other Resources
    • 6. Using Python on Android
      • 6.1. Adding Python to an Android app
      • 6.2. Building a Python package for Android
    • 7. Using Python on iOS
      • 7.1. Python at runtime on iOS
        • 7.1.1. iOS version compatibility
        • 7.1.2. Platform identification
        • 7.1.3. Standard library availability
        • 7.1.4. Binary extension modules
        • 7.1.5. Compiler stub binaries
      • 7.2. Installing Python on iOS
        • 7.2.1. Tools for building iOS apps
        • 7.2.2. Adding Python to an iOS project
        • 7.2.3. Testing a Python package
      • 7.3. App Store Compliance
    • 8. Editors and IDEs
      • 8.1. IDLE — Python editor and shell
      • 8.2. Other Editors and IDEs
  • The Python Language Reference
    • 1. Introduction
      • 1.1. Alternate Implementations
      • 1.2. Notation
    • 2. Lexical analysis
      • 2.1. Line structure
        • 2.1.1. Logical lines
        • 2.1.2. Physical lines
        • 2.1.3. Comments
        • 2.1.4. Encoding declarations
        • 2.1.5. Explicit line joining
        • 2.1.6. Implicit line joining
        • 2.1.7. Blank lines
        • 2.1.8. Indentation
        • 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens
      • 2.2. Other tokens
      • 2.3. Identifiers and keywords
        • 2.3.1. Keywords
        • 2.3.2. Soft Keywords
        • 2.3.3. Reserved classes of identifiers
      • 2.4. Literals
        • 2.4.1. String and Bytes literals
          • 2.4.1.1. Escape sequences
        • 2.4.2. String literal concatenation
        • 2.4.3. f-strings
        • 2.4.4. Numeric literals
        • 2.4.5. Integer literals
        • 2.4.6. Floating-point literals
        • 2.4.7. Imaginary literals
      • 2.5. Operators
      • 2.6. Delimiters
    • 3. Data model
      • 3.1. Objects, values and types
      • 3.2. The standard type hierarchy
        • 3.2.1. None
        • 3.2.2. NotImplemented
        • 3.2.3. Ellipsis
        • 3.2.4. numbers.Number
          • 3.2.4.1. numbers.Integral
          • 3.2.4.2. numbers.Real (float)
          • 3.2.4.3. numbers.Complex (complex)
        • 3.2.5. Sequences
          • 3.2.5.1. Immutable sequences
          • 3.2.5.2. Mutable sequences
        • 3.2.6. Set types
        • 3.2.7. Mappings
          • 3.2.7.1. Dictionaries
        • 3.2.8. Callable types
          • 3.2.8.1. User-defined functions
            • 3.2.8.1.1. Special read-only attributes
            • 3.2.8.1.2. Special writable attributes
          • 3.2.8.2. Instance methods
          • 3.2.8.3. Generator functions
          • 3.2.8.4. Coroutine functions
          • 3.2.8.5. Asynchronous generator functions
          • 3.2.8.6. Built-in functions
          • 3.2.8.7. Built-in methods
          • 3.2.8.8. Classes
          • 3.2.8.9. Class Instances
        • 3.2.9. Modules
          • 3.2.9.1. Import-related attributes on module objects
          • 3.2.9.2. Other writable attributes on module objects
          • 3.2.9.3. Module dictionaries
        • 3.2.10. Custom classes
          • 3.2.10.1. Special attributes
          • 3.2.10.2. Special methods
        • 3.2.11. Class instances
          • 3.2.11.1. Special attributes
        • 3.2.12. I/O objects (also known as file objects)
        • 3.2.13. Internal types
          • 3.2.13.1. Code objects
            • 3.2.13.1.1. Special read-only attributes
            • 3.2.13.1.2. Methods on code objects
          • 3.2.13.2. Frame objects
            • 3.2.13.2.1. Special read-only attributes
            • 3.2.13.2.2. Special writable attributes
            • 3.2.13.2.3. Frame object methods
          • 3.2.13.3. Traceback objects
          • 3.2.13.4. Slice objects
          • 3.2.13.5. Static method objects
          • 3.2.13.6. Class method objects
      • 3.3. Special method names
        • 3.3.1. Basic customization
        • 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access
          • 3.3.2.1. Customizing module attribute access
          • 3.3.2.2. Implementing Descriptors
          • 3.3.2.3. Invoking Descriptors
          • 3.3.2.4. __slots__
        • 3.3.3. Customizing class creation
          • 3.3.3.1. Metaclasses
          • 3.3.3.2. Resolving MRO entries
          • 3.3.3.3. Determining the appropriate metaclass
          • 3.3.3.4. Preparing the class namespace
          • 3.3.3.5. Executing the class body
          • 3.3.3.6. Creating the class object
          • 3.3.3.7. Uses for metaclasses
        • 3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks
        • 3.3.5. Emulating generic types
          • 3.3.5.1. The purpose of __class_getitem__
          • 3.3.5.2. __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__
        • 3.3.6. Emulating callable objects
        • 3.3.7. Emulating container types
        • 3.3.8. Emulating numeric types
        • 3.3.9. With Statement Context Managers
        • 3.3.10. Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching
        • 3.3.11. Emulating buffer types
        • 3.3.12. Special method lookup
      • 3.4. Coroutines
        • 3.4.1. Awaitable Objects
        • 3.4.2. Coroutine Objects
        • 3.4.3. Asynchronous Iterators
        • 3.4.4. Asynchronous Context Managers
    • 4. Execution model
      • 4.1. Structure of a program
      • 4.2. Naming and binding
        • 4.2.1. Binding of names
        • 4.2.2. Resolution of names
        • 4.2.3. Annotation scopes
        • 4.2.4. Lazy evaluation
        • 4.2.5. Builtins and restricted execution
        • 4.2.6. Interaction with dynamic features
      • 4.3. Exceptions
      • 4.4. Runtime Components
        • 4.4.1. General Computing Model
        • 4.4.2. Python Runtime Model
    • 5. The import system
      • 5.1. importlib
      • 5.2. Packages
        • 5.2.1. Regular packages
        • 5.2.2. Namespace packages
      • 5.3. Searching
        • 5.3.1. The module cache
        • 5.3.2. Finders and loaders
        • 5.3.3. Import hooks
        • 5.3.4. The meta path
      • 5.4. Loading
        • 5.4.1. Loaders
        • 5.4.2. Submodules
        • 5.4.3. Module specs
        • 5.4.4. __path__ attributes on modules
        • 5.4.5. Module reprs
        • 5.4.6. Cached bytecode invalidation
      • 5.5. The Path Based Finder
        • 5.5.1. Path entry finders
        • 5.5.2. Path entry finder protocol
      • 5.6. Replacing the standard import system
      • 5.7. Package Relative Imports
      • 5.8. Special considerations for __main__
        • 5.8.1. __main__.__spec__
      • 5.9. References
    • 6. Expressions
      • 6.1. Arithmetic conversions
      • 6.2. Atoms
        • 6.2.1. Identifiers (Names)
          • 6.2.1.1. Private name mangling
        • 6.2.2. Literals
        • 6.2.3. Parenthesized forms
        • 6.2.4. Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries
        • 6.2.5. List displays
        • 6.2.6. Set displays
        • 6.2.7. Dictionary displays
        • 6.2.8. Generator expressions
        • 6.2.9. Yield expressions
          • 6.2.9.1. Generator-iterator methods
          • 6.2.9.2. Examples
          • 6.2.9.3. Asynchronous generator functions
          • 6.2.9.4. Asynchronous generator-iterator methods
      • 6.3. Primaries
        • 6.3.1. Attribute references
        • 6.3.2. Subscriptions
        • 6.3.3. Slicings
        • 6.3.4. Calls
      • 6.4. Await expression
      • 6.5. The power operator
      • 6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
      • 6.7. Binary arithmetic operations
      • 6.8. Shifting operations
      • 6.9. Binary bitwise operations
      • 6.10. Comparisons
        • 6.10.1. Value comparisons
        • 6.10.2. Membership test operations
        • 6.10.3. Identity comparisons
      • 6.11. Boolean operations
      • 6.12. Assignment expressions
      • 6.13. Conditional expressions
      • 6.14. Lambdas
      • 6.15. Expression lists
      • 6.16. Evaluation order
      • 6.17. Operator precedence
    • 7. Simple statements
      • 7.1. Expression statements
      • 7.2. Assignment statements
        • 7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements
        • 7.2.2. Annotated assignment statements
      • 7.3. The assert statement
      • 7.4. The pass statement
      • 7.5. The del statement
      • 7.6. The return statement
      • 7.7. The yield statement
      • 7.8. The raise statement
      • 7.9. The break statement
      • 7.10. The continue statement
      • 7.11. The import statement
        • 7.11.1. Future statements
      • 7.12. The global statement
      • 7.13. The nonlocal statement
      • 7.14. The type statement
    • 8. Compound statements
      • 8.1. The if statement
      • 8.2. The while statement
      • 8.3. The for statement
      • 8.4. The try statement
        • 8.4.1. except clause
        • 8.4.2. except* clause
        • 8.4.3. else clause
        • 8.4.4. finally clause
      • 8.5. The with statement
      • 8.6. The match statement
        • 8.6.1. Overview
        • 8.6.2. Guards
        • 8.6.3. Irrefutable Case Blocks
        • 8.6.4. Patterns
          • 8.6.4.1. OR Patterns
          • 8.6.4.2. AS Patterns
          • 8.6.4.3. Literal Patterns
          • 8.6.4.4. Capture Patterns
          • 8.6.4.5. Wildcard Patterns
          • 8.6.4.6. Value Patterns
          • 8.6.4.7. Group Patterns
          • 8.6.4.8. Sequence Patterns
          • 8.6.4.9. Mapping Patterns
          • 8.6.4.10. Class Patterns
      • 8.7. Function definitions
      • 8.8. Class definitions
      • 8.9. Coroutines
        • 8.9.1. Coroutine function definition
        • 8.9.2. The async for statement
        • 8.9.3. The async with statement
      • 8.10. Type parameter lists
        • 8.10.1. Generic functions
        • 8.10.2. Generic classes
        • 8.10.3. Generic type aliases
    • 9. Top-level components
      • 9.1. Complete Python programs
      • 9.2. File input
      • 9.3. Interactive input
      • 9.4. Expression input
    • 10. Full Grammar specification
  • Python built-ins reference
    • Built-in Types
      • Truth Value Testing
      • Boolean Operations — and, or, not
      • Comparisons
      • Numeric Types — int, float, complex
        • Bitwise Operations on Integer Types
        • Additional Methods on Integer Types
        • Additional Methods on Float
        • Hashing of numeric types
      • Boolean Type - bool
      • Iterator Types
        • Generator Types
      • Sequence Types — list, tuple, range
        • Common Sequence Operations
        • Immutable Sequence Types
        • Mutable Sequence Types
        • Lists
        • Tuples
        • Ranges
      • Text Sequence Type — str
        • String Methods
        • Formatted String Literals (f-strings)
        • printf-style String Formatting
      • Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview
        • Bytes Objects
        • Bytearray Objects
        • Bytes and Bytearray Operations
        • printf-style Bytes Formatting
        • Memory Views
      • Set Types — set, frozenset
      • Mapping Types — dict
        • Dictionary view objects
      • Context Manager Types
      • Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union
        • Generic Alias Type
          • Standard Generic Classes
          • Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects
        • Union Type
      • Other Built-in Types
        • Modules
        • Classes and Class Instances
        • Functions
        • Methods
        • Code Objects
        • Type Objects
        • The Null Object
        • The Ellipsis Object
        • The NotImplemented Object
        • Internal Objects
      • Special Attributes
      • Integer string conversion length limitation
        • Affected APIs
        • Configuring the limit
        • Recommended configuration
    • Built-in Constants
      • Constants added by the site module
    • Built-in Functions
    • Built-in Exceptions
      • Exception context
      • Inheriting from built-in exceptions
      • Base classes
      • Concrete exceptions
        • OS exceptions
      • Warnings
      • Exception groups
      • Exception hierarchy
  • The Python standard library
    • Introduction
      • Notes on availability
        • WebAssembly platforms
        • Mobile platforms
    • Text Processing Services
      • string — Common string operations
        • String constants
        • Custom string formatting
        • Format string syntax
          • Format specification mini-language
          • Format examples
        • Template strings
        • Helper functions
      • re — Regular expression operations
        • Regular Expression Syntax
        • Module Contents
          • Flags
          • Functions
          • Exceptions
        • Regular Expression Objects
        • Match Objects
        • Regular Expression Examples
          • Checking for a Pair
          • Simulating scanf()
          • search() vs. match()
          • Making a Phonebook
          • Text Munging
          • Finding all Adverbs
          • Finding all Adverbs and their Positions
          • Raw String Notation
          • Writing a Tokenizer
      • difflib — Helpers for computing deltas
        • Junk heuristic
        • The difflib algorithm
        • Diff generation
        • Junk definition functions
        • SequenceMatcher objects
        • Examples
          • SequenceMatcher examples
          • Differ example
          • A command-line interface to difflib
          • ndiff example
      • textwrap — Text wrapping and filling
      • unicodedata — Unicode Database
      • stringprep — Internet String Preparation
      • readline — GNU readline interface
        • Init file
        • Line buffer
        • History file
        • History list
        • Startup hooks
        • Completion
        • Example
      • rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline
    • Binary Data Services
      • struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data
        • Functions and Exceptions
        • Format Strings
          • Byte Order, Size, and Alignment
          • Format Characters
          • Examples
        • Applications
          • Native Formats
          • Standard Formats
        • Classes
      • codecs — Codec registry and base classes
        • Codec Base Classes
          • Error Handlers
          • Stateless Encoding and Decoding
          • Incremental Encoding and Decoding
            • IncrementalEncoder Objects
            • IncrementalDecoder Objects
          • Stream Encoding and Decoding
            • StreamWriter Objects
            • StreamReader Objects
            • StreamReaderWriter Objects
            • StreamRecoder Objects
        • Encodings and Unicode
        • Standard Encodings
        • Python Specific Encodings
          • Text Encodings
          • Binary Transforms
          • Standalone Codec Functions
          • Text Transforms
        • encodings — Encodings package
        • encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
        • encodings.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage
        • encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
    • Data Types
      • datetime — Basic date and time types
        • Aware and Naive Objects
        • Constants
        • Available Types
          • Common Properties
          • Determining if an Object is Aware or Naive
        • timedelta Objects
          • Examples of usage: timedelta
        • date Objects
          • Examples of Usage: date
        • datetime Objects
          • Examples of Usage: datetime
        • time Objects
          • Examples of Usage: time
        • tzinfo Objects
        • timezone Objects
        • strftime() and strptime() Behavior
          • strftime() and strptime() Format Codes
          • Technical Detail
      • zoneinfo — IANA time zone support
        • Using ZoneInfo
        • Data sources
          • Configuring the data sources
            • Compile-time configuration
            • Environment configuration
            • Runtime configuration
        • The ZoneInfo class
          • String representations
          • Pickle serialization
        • Functions
        • Globals
        • Exceptions and warnings
      • calendar — General calendar-related functions
        • Command-Line Usage
      • collections — Container datatypes
        • ChainMap objects
          • ChainMap Examples and Recipes
        • Counter objects
        • deque objects
          • deque Recipes
        • defaultdict objects
          • defaultdict Examples
        • namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields
        • OrderedDict objects
          • OrderedDict Examples and Recipes
        • UserDict objects
        • UserList objects
        • UserString objects
      • collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers
        • Collections Abstract Base Classes
        • Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions
        • Examples and Recipes
      • heapq — Heap queue algorithm
        • Basic Examples
        • Priority Queue Implementation Notes
        • Theory
      • bisect — Array bisection algorithm
        • Performance Notes
        • Searching Sorted Lists
        • Examples
      • array — Efficient arrays of numeric values
      • weakref — Weak references
        • Weak Reference Objects
        • Example
        • Finalizer Objects
        • Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods
      • types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
        • Dynamic Type Creation
        • Standard Interpreter Types
        • Additional Utility Classes and Functions
        • Coroutine Utility Functions
      • copy — Shallow and deep copy operations
      • pprint — Data pretty printer
        • Functions
        • PrettyPrinter Objects
        • Example
      • reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation
        • Repr Objects
        • Subclassing Repr Objects
      • enum — Support for enumerations
        • Module contents
        • Data types
          • Supported __dunder__ names
          • Supported _sunder_ names
        • Utilities and decorators
        • Notes
      • graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
        • Exceptions
    • Numeric and Mathematical Modules
      • numbers — Numeric abstract base classes
        • The numeric tower
        • Notes for type implementers
          • Adding More Numeric ABCs
          • Implementing the arithmetic operations
      • math — Mathematical functions
        • Number-theoretic functions
        • Floating point arithmetic
        • Floating point manipulation functions
        • Power, exponential and logarithmic functions
        • Summation and product functions
        • Angular conversion
        • Trigonometric functions
        • Hyperbolic functions
        • Special functions
        • Constants
      • cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
        • Conversions to and from polar coordinates
        • Power and logarithmic functions
        • Trigonometric functions
        • Hyperbolic functions
        • Classification functions
        • Constants
      • decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic
        • Quick-start tutorial
        • Decimal objects
          • Logical operands
        • Context objects
        • Constants
        • Rounding modes
        • Signals
        • [Page truncated to keep GeezerVison snappy.]

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