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Body modification (or body alteration) is the deliberate altering of the human anatomy or human physical appearance.^[1] In its broadest definition it includes skin tattooing, socially acceptable decoration (e.g., common body piercing in many societies), and religious rites of passage (e.g., circumcision in a number of cultures), as well as the modern primitive movement.

Body modification is performed for a large variety of reasons, including aesthetics, sexual enhancement, rites of passage, religious beliefs, to display group membership or affiliation, in remembrance of lived experience, traditional symbolism such as axis mundi and mythology, to create body art, for shock value, and as self-expression, among other reasons.^[1]^[2]

History

Body modification is recorded in ancient practices, with the tattoos on Ötzi's mummy dating to 5300 years ago.^[3]

Cultural significance

Early stages of getting a navel piercing

What counts as "body modification" varies in cultures. In western cultures, the cutting or removal of one's hair is not usually considered body modification. Body modification can be contrasted with body adornment by defining body modification as "the physical alteration of the physical body [...] can be temporary or permanent, although most are permanent and modify the body forever".^[4] Around the globe, body modification has served as group ritual, rite of passage, and group membership.^[5]

Types of body modification

Main article: List of body modifications

Piercing – permanent placement of jewelry through an artificial fistula; sometimes further modified by stretching
Tattooing – injection of a pigment under the skin
Scarification – cutting or removal of dermis with the intent to encourage intentional scarring or keloiding
Branding – controlled burning or cauterizing of tissue to encourage intentional scarring
Subdermal implants – implantation of an object that resides entirely below the dermis, including horn implants

Psychology and motivations

Factors behind body modification include group identities, reclaiming bodies, and painful rituals.^[6]

Health and safety

Complications of body modifications may include infection and allergic reactions.^[7]

Legal considerations

Laws related to body modification vary across countries, and parental consent may be required for minors.^[8]

Ethical and social perspectives

Body modifications raise ethical questions including harm and threats to autonomy.^[9]

References

1 2 Thompson, Tim; Black, Sue (2010). Forensic Human Identification: An Introduction. CRC Press. pp. 379–398. ISBN 978-1420005714. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
↑ "What Is Body Modification?". Essortment. 16 May 1986. Archived from the original on 28 January 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
↑ Arcini, Caroline Ahlström (2018-05-16). The Viking Age: A Time of Many Faces. Oxbow Books. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-78570-941-8.
↑ DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. United States of America: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313336959.
↑ Ambrosch, Gerfried (2018-05-15). The Poetry of Punk: The Meaning Behind Punk Rock and Hardcore Lyrics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-38444-5.
↑ Pitts, V. (2003-05-15). In the Flesh: The Cultural Politics of Body Modification. Springer. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-4039-7943-8.
↑ Garzon, Dawn Lee; Dirks, Mary; Driessnack, Martha; Duderstadt, Karen G.; Gaylord, Nan M. (2023-11-27). Burns' Pediatric Primary Care - E-Book: Burns' Pediatric Primary Care - E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 765. ISBN 978-0-443-11042-9.
↑ Loue, Sana (2020-06-29). Case Studies in Society, Religion, and Bioethics. Springer Nature. p. 54. ISBN 978-3-030-44150-0.
↑ Kim, Nancy S. (2019-02-14). Consentability. Cambridge University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-107-16491-8.

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