The baseline Proton-K was a three-stage rocket. Thirty were launched in this configuration, with payloads including all of the Soviet Union's Salyutspace stations, all Mir modules with the exception of the Docking Module, which was launched on the United States Space Shuttle, and the Zarya and Zvezda modules of the International Space Station. It was intended to launch Chelomey's crewed TKS spacecraft, and succeeded in launching four uncrewed tests flights prior to the program's cancellation. It was also intended for Chelomey's 20-ton LKSspaceplane that was never realised.
The early Proton-K launch configurations from 1965 to 1971
Like other members of the Universal Rocket family, the Proton-K was fuelled by unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide. These hypergolic propellants ignite on contact, avoiding the need for an ignition system, and can be stored at ambient temperatures. This avoids the need for low-temperature–tolerant components, and allowed the rocket to sit on the pad fully fuelled for long periods of time. In contrast, cryogenic fuels would have required periodic topping-up of propellants as they boil off. The propellants used on the Proton, were, however, corrosive and toxic and required special handling. The Russian Government paid for the cleanup of residual propellant in spent stages that impact downrange.
Proton components were built in factories near Moscow, then transported by rail to the final assembly point near the pad. The first stage of the Proton-K consisted of a central oxidiser tank, and six outrigger fuel tanks. This separated as one piece from the second stage, which was attached by means of a lattice structure interstage. The second stage ignited prior to first stage separation, and the top of the first stage was insulated to ensure that it retained its structural integrity until separation.
The first stage used six RD-253 engines, designed by Valentin Glushko. The RD-253 is a single-chamber engine and uses a staged combustion cycle. The first-stage guidance system was open-loop, which required significant amounts of propellant to be held in reserve.
The third stage was powered by an RD-0210 engine and four vernier nozzles, with common systems. The verniers provided steering, eliminating the need for gimballing of the main engine. They also aided stage separation, and acted as ullage motors. Ducts built into the structure channelled vernier exhaust before stage separation. The third stage guidance system was also used to control the first and second stages earlier in flight.
Many launches used an upper stage to boost the payload into a higher orbit. Blok D upper stages were used on forty flights, the majority of which were for the Luna and Zond programmes. Ten flights used the Blok D-1, mostly to launch spacecraft towards Venus. Blok D-2 upper stages were used three times, with the Fobos 1, Fobos 2 and Mars 96 spacecraft. The Blok DM upper stage was used on 66 launches. The most commonly used upper stage was the Blok DM-2, which was used on 109 flights, mostly with GLONASS and Raduga satellites. Fifteen launches used the modernised Block DM-2M stage, mostly carrying Ekspress satellites, however other satellites, including Eutelsat's SESAT 1, also used this configuration. Two Araks satellites were launched using Block DM-5 upper stages. The Block DM1, a commercial version of the DM-2, was used to launch Inmarsat-3 F2. The Block DM2 upper stage was used to launch three groups of seven Iridium satellites, including Iridium 33. This configuration was also used to launch INTEGRAL for the European Space Agency. Block DM3 stages were used on twenty five launches, almost exclusively carrying commercial satellites. Telstar 5 was launched with a Block DM4. The Briz-M upper stage was used for four launches; three carrying payloads for the Russian Government, and one commercial launch with GE-9 for GE Americom.[5] One launch was reported to have used a Block DM-3 upper stage, however this may have been a reporting error, and it is unclear whether this launch actually used a DM-3, DM3, or DM-2.
Due to its rushed development, the Proton K launch vehicle had a low success rate initially. However, the issues were rectified and it went on to become one of the most widely used heavy launch vehicle.
One first-stage engine did not start at liftoff due to a rubber plug accidentally left inside during assembly, causing control to gradually fail during ascent. The cutoff command was issued at T+97 seconds and the booster crashed downrange, but the Launch Escape System (LES) pulled the Zond descent module to safety.
8
November 22, 1967
Proton K/D
Zond
5375
Moon
no
One second-stage engine failed to ignite at staging. The remaining three engines were shut down automatically and the booster crashed downrange. Once again, the LES pulled the capsule away to safety. Cause was determined to be premature release of fuel into the second stage, resulting in overheating and engine failure.
10
April 22, 1968
Proton K/D
Zond
5375
Moon
?
A malfunction in the LES accidentally shut down the second stage at T+260 seconds and triggered an abort. The capsule was successfully recovered.
14
January 20, 1969
Proton K/D
Zond
5375
Moon
no
Second stage turbopump failure at T+313 seconds. The LES once again lifted the Zond capsule to safety.
15
February 19, 1969
Proton K/D
Luna probe
2718
Moon
no
Payload fairing collapsed at T+51 seconds. Flying debris ruptured the first stage and caused leaking propellant to ignite on contact with the engine exhaust, resulting in the explosion of the launch vehicle.
A fire in one of the first stage engines caused an almost immediate control loss at liftoff. The booster reached an altitude of 300m and began flying horizontally before the cutoff command was issued, causing it to plunge nose-first into the ground. Launch complex personnel were unable to leave the Baikonour Cosmodrome due to one exit being blocked by the still-intact second stage and the other by a large puddle of nitrogen tetroxide. They had no choice but to remain there until a rain came and washed the spilled fuel away.
18
June 14, 1969
Proton K/D
Luna probe
2718
Moon
?
Blok D stage failed to ignite and the probe reentered the atmosphere
18
September 23, 1969
Proton K/D
Luna probe
?
Moon
?
Blok D LOX valve failure. The probe remained in LEO until reentering.
18
October 22, 1969
Proton K/D
Luna probe
?
Moon
?
Blok D control malfunction. Probe failed to leave LEO.
23
November 28, 1969
Proton K/D
Soyuz
?
?
?
Pressure sensor malfunction caused first stage cutoff at T+128 seconds
24
February 6, 1970
Proton K/D
Luna
5600
Moon
no
At T+128.3 s, flight safety system automatically shut off first-stage engine because of false alarm from pressure gauge.
Block D flight sequencer programmed incorrectly, resulting in failure to perform second burn or payload separation. Reportedly the coast time between burns was set to 1.5 years instead of 1.5 hours.
Vehicle stability loss at T+87 s because of an error in first-stage No. 2 engine steering unit. Fault attributed to fuel leak in second-stage engine compartment, which caused control cables to overheat.
Loss of stability at T+259.1 s caused flight termination. Hot gas leak from second-stage engine because of faulty seal on pressure gauge led to failure of electrical unit for automatic stabilization.
At T+235.62 s, second-stage engine shut off with resultant loss of stability caused by a turbine part igniting in turbopump gas tract followed by gas inlet destruction and hot air ejection into second rear section.
First-stage engine No. 5 suffered failure of hydraulic gimbal actuator because of dynamic excitation at T+45 seconds. Automatic flight shutdown commanded. This would be the last first-stage malfunction of a Proton until 2013.
Block DM-2 stage failed at ignition for second burn. Suspected causes were failure of a tube joint, which could cause a propellant leak, or possible contamination of hypergolic start system.
Block D-2 fourth-stage engine failed to reignite to boost spacecraft into desired transfer orbit; injection burn did not propel spacecraft out of Earth orbit. Spacecraft and upper stage reentered after a few hours. Root cause could not be determined because of lack of telemetry coverage, but suspected cause was failure of Mars 96 spacecraft, which was controlling Block D stage, or poor integration between spacecraft and stage.
Block DM shut down early because of improperly coated turbopump seal, leaving spacecraft in high-inclination geosynchronous transfer orbit. Customer declared spacecraft a total loss and collected insurance payment. However, Hughes salvaged the spacecraft using spacecraft thrusters to raise orbit apogee to perform two lunar swingbys, which lowered inclination and raised perigee. Apogee was then lowered to achieve a geosynchronous orbit inclined 8 deg. Spacecraft has become available for limited use.
Maiden flight of Briz-M upper stage. Contaminants from welding defect in the turbopump caused the second-stage engine No. 3 to catch fire, destroying the rear section of the stage.
Particulate contamination caused the turbine exhaust duct of second stage engine No. 1 to catch fire at T+223 s, resulting in rapid shutdown of the stage. This and the previous failure in July were attributed to poor workmanship at the Voronezh engine plant. Both engines were part of the same batch built in 1993, during a period when production decreased significantly.
A failed valve caused excess fuel to collect in the Block DM main engine during the parking orbit coast phase after the first burn. The engine was destroyed.
↑McDowell, Jonathan. "Proton". Orbital and Suborbital Launch Database. Jonathan's Space Page. Archived from the original on 2004-09-05. Retrieved 2009-03-05.
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